Christology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Christology - Essay Example Although all attempts to categorize the views of others risk oversimplification, it is nonetheless necessary to distinguish between and categorize different approaches if we are to evaluate them briefly and effectively. What does this say about Christian mission I do not mean to suggest that evangelization is incompatible with respectful dialogue -- quite the opposite. Although evangelizing calls at times for clarity about the faith that informs Christian action, evangelizing is not the same thing as proselytizing. To evangelize is to witness to the Gospel, and very often the witness that is required is decency, cooperation in pursuit of the common good, and willingness to profess one's own faith truthfully (Haight, 2000, 103-112). In the context of interfaith dialogue, witness to the Gospel should lie precisely in refusing to take advantage of the situation to make converts. But this is the nub of the problem, since it is precisely the content of the Gospel as it relates to dialogue that is in question. (Sobrino, 2002, 42-48) The refu Christology in Contemporary Christianity The refusal to proselytize can only be a witness to the Gospel if the Gospel itself warrants such a refusal. Christians have always understood the Good News as something which demands to be shared with everybody because the salvation it proclaims is addressed to everybody (Hill, 2004, 93-100). If there are times and situations when going out of one's way to make converts is to be avoided for the sake of the Gospel itself, this can only be because the Gospel vision places a high value on respectful dialogue, even on a dialogue that is prepared to continue interminably with no agreement in view. Thinking along these lines, we might say that in Christ the presence of the alien is welcomed and the fact of difference is embraced-this is the Good News that is proclaimed by Christians when they not only live peaceably with nonbelievers but seek fellowship and common cause with followers of any tradition that honors the stranger and says yes to difference. But if significance (or even the me re assumption of religious superiority) is the natural fruit of Christian faith, then the Gospel I have just described cannot be the Christian Gospel. (Snyder, 1988, 54-62) We can also turn this around and say that if philosophical significance does not belong to the essence of Christianity, what we are left with is a Christian Gospel that demands that the church forswear all claims to spiritual privilege, and rejoice as it does so. So, where does the Christian Gospel really stand with respect to philosophical significance As I have suggested, the New Testament itself is unable to decide the question, since it can be read both ways. This collection of mid-to-late first-century texts with widely varying and at times contradictory theological agendas is unified by its persistent claim that Jesus is the Messiah (Snyder, 1988, 54-62). Some would add that it is also unified by the importance implied in this claim about Jesus.

The Time Machine Essay Example for Free

The Time Machine Essay The narrator recounts the explanation of two difficult ideas by a man he refers to as the Time Traveller to an after-dinner group. The group includes a Psychologist, a Medical Man, a Provincial Mayor, and a few other men. The Time Traveller shows them a smaller prototype of the time machine, and when he pulls a lever, it disappearsinto the future, he claims. At the next weeks dinner, the Time Traveller comes in midway through the meal, haggard and limping. He tells them of his eight days of time travel. He uses the Time Machine that morning and speeds forward through time. The Time Machine lands in a garden and the Time Traveller sees a statue of a White Sphinx and he notices robed figures in a nearby house who are watching him. One approaches him and speaks in a strange tongue. When the creatures feel the Time Machine, the Time Traveller adjusts the levers to render it inoperable. The Time Traveller is stunned to think these creatures from 802,701 AD could be fools. The creatures bring him to a huge nearby building, where they invite him to devour exotic fruit with them. At first, he explains, he was confused by the strange fruits and flowers he saw, but he later came to understand their significance. The Time Traveller tries to learn the creatures language, but they soon lose interest in teaching him. He marvels at their laziness and lack of curiosity. He goes outside and is confused by the repositioning of the worldthe Thames River has shifted more than a mile. As he explores and sees only huge buildings, he arrives at a conclusion: Communism. However, he explains he was later to find out that his initial assumptions were incorrect. He believes he has happened upon the end of humanity. He also believes their population checks have possibly been too effective, accounting for the abandoned ruins. However, he admits, his explanation turned out to be wrong. The full moon comes out, the creatures go into buildings, and the Time Traveller finds someplace to sleep. When he reaches the garden of the White Sphinx, he finds the Time Machine is missing. Fortunately, without the levers, the Time Machine is inoperable. The next day he finds hints that the machine was dragged into the hollow bronze pedestal under the White Sphinx. However, he does not know how to open the pedestal, and when he indicates to some of the creatures that he wishes to open it, they seem deeply offended and leave. Over the ext couple of days, the Time Traveller learns some more of the creatures simple language and tries to forget about his missing Time Machine until he has gained enough knowledge to recover it. The deep, circular wells continue to puzzle him, as does the vacuum they produce and the thudding sound from below. He connects the presence of the wells with the tall towers spread about and concludes t hat there is a subterranean ventilation system, an idea that will prove to be wrong. He believes the society is run by automatic organization. On his third day, the Time Traveller saves a young female creature from drowning in the shallow river. Her name is Weena and she soon follows him around like a puppy, giving him flowers, and grows distressed when she cannot keep up with his explorations and is left behind. The Time Traveller learns that her only fear is of the dark, and that after dark, the creatures sleep only inside in groups. Still, the Time Traveller continues to sleep away from the groups, eventually with Weena. The Time Traveller resumes talking about the night before he rescued Weena. He awakes at dawn, and twice sees white, ape-like creatures running alone up a hill, and once sees several of them carrying a dark body. Once the sun rises, he sees them no more. On his fourth morning, while seeking shelter from the heat in one of the ruins, the Time Traveller finds a dark, narrow gallery. Entering it, he comes across a pair of eyes watching him in the darkness. A small, white ape-like creature then runs behind him in the sunlit space. He follows it into a second ruin where he finds a well. Lighting a match, he peers inside it and sees the creature climbing down metal foot and hand rests on the wall. The Time Traveller realizes that man has evolved into two distinct animals, the Upperworld creatures and the nocturnal ones below. He comes up with a new theory of how the world operates: the new species he has found are subterranean and live in tunnels ventilated by the towers and wells, and work to ensure the functioning of the Upperworld. He believes the human race has split as a result of the widening gap between the Capitalist and the Labourer, and that the poor have been increasingly relegated to underground areas. The lack of interaction between the poor workers and the rich has cut down interbreeding and created two distinct species who have adapted to their own environments. The Time Traveller is not sure if this is the correct explanation, but it seems the most plausible. He wonders why the Morlocksthe name of the Underworld creatureshave taken his Time Machine, and why the Eloithe Upperworld creaturescannot return it to him, if they are the masters, and why they are afraid of the dark. Weena cries when he asks her these questions. The Time Traveller cannot muster the courage to go underground and confront the Morlocks about his stolen Time Machine. Instead, he explores the Upperworld more, one day happening upon a huge green structure which he calls the Palace of Green Porcelain. Finally he descends into the well, greatly distressing Weena. He rests in a tunnel inside it, and is woken by three Morlocks. They flee when he lights a match, and the Time Traveller cannot communicate with them, as they speak a different language from the Eloi. He finds his way into a large, dark, machine-filled cavern where the Morlocks eat meat. Soon the Morlocks grope him. He shouts at them, then lights a succession of matches as he escapes. The Time Traveller instantly despises the Morlocks. As the moon wanes and the nights have longer periods of darkness, Weena talks about the Dark Nights. The Time Traveller begins to understand why the Eloi fear the darkness, though he does not know what kind of foul villainy the Morlocks practice at night. He revises his hypothesis: while the Eloi and Morlocks may have once had a master-slave relationship, now the Morlocks are growing in power while the Eloi are fearful. The Time Traveller decides to defend himself against the Morlocks. First he must find weapons and a safe place to sleep. The only place he can think of is the Palace of Green Porcelain. He starts off the long trek with Weena, and comes up with a new theory about the Morlocks: they breed the Eloi like cattle for food. He sympathizes with the plight of the Eloi. The Time Traveller decides to use a torch as a weapon against the Morlocks, and then acquire some kind of battering-ram to break open the pedestal under the White Sphinx, where he imagines the Time Machine is still kept. He also plans to bring Weena back to his own time. The Palace of Green Porcelain turns out to be a ruined museum with objects from the Time Travellers time and beyond. The Time Traveller finds an enormous room with huge, strange machines, and wonders if he can use them against the Morlocks. He notices that the gallery slopes downward into darkness. When he hears noises in the darkness similar to those from the well, he breaks off the lever of a machine. He restrains his desire to kill the Morlocks. He finds a box of matches and a jar of flammable camphor. The Time Traveller treks with Weena through the woods, hoping to reach the White Sphinx by the next morning. They gather sticks for a fire that night. At night, about a mile before a safe clearing, the Time Traveller spots some hiding Morlocks. He distracts them by setting fire to the sticks and leaving them there. He takes Weena through the woods as the fire spreads behind them. Soon, the Morlocks are on him and Weena. The Time Traveller scares them off with a match. Weena seems to have fainted, and he carries her. The action has disoriented him, and he is now lost. He camps out, gathering more sticks for a fire. He fends off the Morlocks with the light from his matches. The Time Traveller nods off, and wakens when the Morlocks are on him again. His matches are gone and his fire has gone out. He grabs his lever and strikes them. They flee, but the TT soon realizes the forest fire he previously set is the source of their fear. Unable to find Weena, he takes his lever and follows the Morlocks until he finds an open space. He strikes the Morlocks until he sees that they are incapacitated by the fire. He does not locate Weena among them. In the morning, when the fire dies down, he cannot find Weena, whose body he believes was left in the forest. He limps on to the White Sphinx, feeling lonely and vengeful. He discovers some loose matches in his pocket. Back with the Eloi, the Time Traveller reflects on how wrong his initial assumptions were. He thinks the human intellect had committed suicide by creating a perfect state in which the rich had wealth and comfort and the poor had life and work. Such a perfect balance can exist for only so long, he believes, before it is disruptedin this case, by the Morlocks need for food, which they find only in the Eloi. At the White Sphinx, he is surprised to find the bronze pedestal has been opened, and the Time Machine is inside. He throws away his weapon and goes inside. Suddenly, the bronze panels close up, and the Time Traveller is trapped. Morlocks laugh as they a pproach him. The Time Traveller feels safe, knowing he has only to reattach the levers on the machine to make his exit. However, his matches require a box to light. In the darkness, he fights them as he gets into the machines saddle and reattaches the levers. Finally, he pulls a lever and disappears. The Time Traveller notices that, in the confusion of his fight with the Morlocks, he accidentally sent himself into the future, rather than the past. Time Traveller observes the reddish landscape and the moss-like vegetation everywhere. There is no wind, the water of the sea barely moves, and the air is rarefied. He sees a huge, crab-like thing crawling toward him. The Time Traveller pulls his machines lever and watches more of the giant crabs crawl along the beach as he shoots forward through time. The sun grows larger and duller. After thirty million years, all life save the green vegetation ceases to exist, and it starts to snow. The Time Traveller stops the machine. He feels sick and confused and incapable of facing the return journey. He sees a black creature crawl out from the sea, and his fear of remaining in this environment compels him to climb back into the Time Machine. The Time Traveller relates to the men his travel back to the present time. The men imply that they do not believe his story, and soon leave. The narrator thinks more about the Time Travellers story, unsure if it is true. He goes to the laboratory the next day and asks the Time Traveller if his story was true. He promises it was, and says he will prove it in half an hour when hes done working on the machine. He leaves, and the narrator realizes he has to meet someone soon. As he goes into the laboratory to tell the Time Traveller, there is a gust of wind and some odd sounds, and neither the Time Traveller nor the Time Machine is present. When a servant tells him he has not seen the Time Traveller outside, the narrator understands he has travelled into time again. Three years later, the Time Traveller has yet to return to the present. The narrator wonders where the Time Travellers adventures may have taken him. While the Time Traveller saw that mankinds progress turned out to be destructive, the narrator believes human civilization may still do some good as it matures. The narrator also chooses to view the future as largely unknown. He now owns two white flowers given to the Time Traveller by Weenaproof, he says, that even when mind and strength had gone, gratitude and a mutual tenderness still lived on in the heart of man.

Time Cat by Lloyd Alexander Essay -- Time Cat Lloyd Alexander Outline

Time Cat by Lloyd Alexander Type of story: Fictional Setting: 1.Time: Historical period: the story jumps from different times. While traveling though they go from 2700b.c. to 55b.c. to 998b.c. to 411b.c. to 998a.d. to 1468 to 1555 to 1588 to 1600 to 1775. 2. Place: Geographical location: This story as well as switching from time to time it also switches from place to place. While traveling they go the places of Egypt, Rome and Britain, Ireland, Japan, Italy, Peru, The Isle of Man, and finally to America. Scenes: The story starts out in Jason’s room and from there it goes to Egypt where Gareth and Jason go down the Nile river and to a the pharaoh’s palace. From there they Rome and Britain where the spend there time out in forest along seas, in king’s castles, in tribal areas. Main Characters: 1.Name: Jason Physical Features: Jason is tall and skinny; he has short brown hair and deep blue eyes. 2. Personality description: In the beginning of the story Jason is laying in bed and crying because of what a bad day he has been having so that probably shows that he is a sensitive boy. He has a large imagination, this he shows because he does believe his cat (Gareth would talk to him if he wanted to. He is rough and is easily bugged but other than that Jason is sweet and cares dearly for the ones he loves. How does this character change through out the story?: Jason has no change to him, he stills believes in what he believed in before, his attitude is the same; he doesn’t grow kinder but also not meaner. Jason is the same boy he was in the beginning. Character #2 Name: Gareth Physical Description: Gareth is a black cat with orange eyes, Sometimes, when he hunched his shoulders and put down his ears, he looked like an owl. When he stretched, he looked like a trickle of oil or a pair of black silk pajamas. When he sat on a window ledge, his eyes half-shut and his tail curled around him, he looked like a secret. Personality Description: Gareth is a smart, loving cat. He seems to be a problem solver or conflict solver. He has a sly personality to him or like, if you were to just meet him then you’d be very cautious around him because of the way he seems to be. The Problem of the Story: There are a few conflicts to this story, every time Jason and Gareth go to a new place ... ...lly the conflict of this story is the people believe Gareth is a witches slave. Mistress Ursulina’s problem: Miss Ursulina’s problem was that the people of the village believed that she was a witch and right when she was caught she should burned to death. 9.America in the year of 1775: NO CONFLICT. The Plot: 1. Jason is sitting in his bed frustrated because of the horrible day he has and then out of nowhere his cat, Gareth, begins to talk to him. 2. Jason and Gareth travel to Egypt where the meet the pharaoh, Neter-Khet, who they give a valuable lesson to. 3. Jason and Gareth travel to Ireland where they meet the beautiful Diahan who introduces them to Sucat (the herdsman), the magician, and her father, the king. 4. Jason tries proving to the king that his cat is much more useful than the magician in keeping the mice away and does not have to use magic and will not have to be paid. 5. Jason and Gareth have to go home and they have to say good-bye because Gareth tells Jason that he will never be able to speak to him again. 6. Jason wakes to realize that all had happened with Gareth and traveling was a dream. THE END!!!

SHIP OF THE HUNTED: A BLEND OF FACT AND FICTION :: essays research papers

Historical fiction is a type of genre that helps paint a more captivating and colourful picture of the past. It combines fact and fiction as it presents mostly fabricated characters set in a definite period of history. Ship of the Hunted, by Yehuda Elberg, defines this genre as it entwines the lives of a fictional family with historical facts and elements such as life in the Warsaw ghetto, hiding to survive, and the Brichah movement of Jews out of Poland. History has recorded that over half a million Jews were crowded into the Warsaw ghetto between October and November of 1940. The squalor, starvation, disease, exposure to cold, and the daily shootings claimed the lives of about 5, 000 to 6, 000 Jews each month. In Ship of the Hunted, the Heshl family struggles to survive this trend. Like so many others living in the ghetto, Golda and her son, Yossel, scavenge the blocks, looking for any items that can be smuggled out of the ghetto in exchange for food. After his father and older sister are deported, Yossel is confronted by Golda, who wants him to stop smuggling. â€Å" ‘This stuff buys food. We have to eat, Mama.’ ‘Yossel, you’re still a child. You know they shoot children for scavenging!’ ‘They shoot mothers for scavenging, too.’ ’’ (Elberg, 17) This conversation demonstrates the desperate measures taken by the Jews to obtain food. The raids in the ghetto also caused their numbers to dwindle. Daily, thousands of Jews were removed from the ghetto and transported to concentration camps. After surviving one such raid by hiding in a bunker, Golda surfaces to find out about another raid on a hospital. â€Å"Liquidated, floor by floor. On foot and by stretcher, they had been sent off – a man with an incision still open; an infant, newly born.† (Elberg, 23) These raids led to deportations, which eventually led to extermination. News spread, and those who refused to be led away to death took part in what would be one of the greatest periods in Jewish history. The Warsaw ghetto uprising began on April 19th of 1943, as the surviving inhabitants of the ghetto resisted the German troops and police who had come to deport them. This battle held out for 20 days till the Germans finally overpowered the lightly armed Jews. In t he novel, Golda is a witness to the uprising and its end.

Brideshead Revisited

A twitch upon the thread-each of us sometimes feels being tied to some kind of thread, invisible one and there is someone on the other end of it who twitches this thread when it’s necessary.The thing is how far each of us can go away to feel it or how far God can permit us go away wondering before twitching it. God sees everything and never will leave someone who need his help, who tries to preserve something really valid in his soul, just the thread can be of different length. In â€Å"Brideshead Revisited† by Evelyn Waugh the idea of the â€Å"thread† is rather good highlighted . The story affects a misleading attitude of indifference, which neither condemn nor sanction any conduct or behavior that takes place.The fond of the novel is religious. The plot is a nostalgic story based on the memories of the main characters who had been a wealthy English Catholic family. In England where most people are Protestant, being Catholic makes the family despite their owner ship and high social status, a subject of prejudice.But in the world of English upper-class, in this world itself   a lot of sins and defects can be seen. The life of wealthy students in Oxford is full of self-indulgence and irresponsibility. Here, Charles Ryder first meets Sebastian Flyte who searches for happiness and self in this world but he can’t find it.   So, he tries to escape in alcohol and denial of faith.The novel â€Å"Brideshead Revisited† is the moral story which shows us what usually happens when the material things of the world loose their attractiveness and sense, when one, finally, has to take a look inside his soul and seeing nothing there becomes struck and scared. In such situation it’s hard to preserve one’s spiritual values and frequently a   person can’t find the way out.That’s what is happening with Sebastian. The God permits one to go far away from him, even to escape, to hide himself somewhere but the tread b etween him and the individual could be still very long. It can be so long as God   wants.The unique person who can cut it is the person itself. The individual can cut this thread by his total indifference ,by absence of his proper desire to correct, to change something in his life. But still one continues looking at his soul searching for something better there, this thread will be permanent and our task is to be aware of this twitching when we loose control.During his first visit to Marchmain family’s residence, Charles Ryder is struck by the moral tragedy of a family –with their desire to appear traditional and socially accepted in the â€Å"correct† circle.Lady Marchmain commands abidance to Catholicism among four   very different children. She controls over her children using her charm, piety and the religious doctrine which is unquestionable for her. The elder son, Brideshaed is pious and conservative and narrow-minded. Julia is a contemporary woman, sm art and very beautiful. She is portrayed as a complex young woman who must reject her faith to marry. She eventually finds herself disappointed with her choice of a husband and is left wondering how life could be so bad.Cordelia is the youngest of the Marchmain children. She is too young and devout of faith to fully understand her brother’s dilemma. Cordelia also seems too young to be aware of her mother’s need to control, but after Lady Marchmain dies, Cordelia confides to Charles that her mother was saintly but she wasn’t a saint and when people wanted to hate God, they hated her mother. There is a resigned acceptance at her inability to love her mother and of the lapse of faith of her father, sister and beloved brother. In this case it can be seen perfectly well how the beauty and charm of upper-class life can destroy relationship, the life of a family.Charles, the upper-middleclass Oxford student sees that there is more to Oxford life than mere study. He lik es the upper-class and, naturally, he wants to be part of it. He likes its charm and splendor but at the same time he sees a great hole in Sebastian’s soul when he meets him.The author gives us the description of the eventual downfall of the youngest son Sebastian, whose burden is to confront his disillusionment with his faith, with his morally incorruptible mother. Sebastian is a lonely soul, he uses his religion as a toy and all the time feels the strange conflict in his soul. Charles and Sebastian became inseparable and lived life at Oxford to the full, but Charles realized that Sebastian drank not because of an excess of high spirits or enjoy but to escape. He looks for love but struggles with homosexuality.He has no truly romantic relationships with either a man or a woman until Charles arrives. Charles isn’t homosexual but he can see Sebastian’s tragedy. Sebastian’s deep depression and inner battle to reconcile his beliefs with his mother’s e xpectations of him are exemplified by the conversation between two young men in the colonnade with the papers. Sebastian couldn’t find true solace in his relationship with Charles because he perceived that Charles couldn’t understand the gravity of his dilemma, despite their mutual love.Waugh portrays Charles as a irreligious person and this makes Sebastian’s dilemma deeper. The chasm between unaffected by religion and the need to be devout of faith is too wide to be bridged for these two young men. Sebastian escapes but he escapes from himself, he can’t find something that would calm him though he has everything.   His inner desire for God , for real love doesn’t permit him to dissolve completely in the world of false feelings. And that is that so-called thread of God , unseen hook that he can twitch when someone escapes too far.The thing is not each of us pays attention to this kind of control. We are sure that we are all right and everything w e are doing is perfect and correct   and ,frequently, people go on doing what is correct to their opinion making this thread longer and longer. In the novel by Evelyn Waugh it can be seen very well.Julia agonises over her marriage to a colonial who doesn’t understand the devotion to the church which he consider to encourage the perpetuation of guilt for its own purposes. But finally she is disappointed like her brother Sebastian.With all of these examples Waugh tries to explain that whatever   we do, it can’t avoid the evaluation of God. No one can break the link communicating his soul with God and leave in this way without problems. God won’t let them go too far..These words are emblematic of all this novel. Among thousands of problems and troubles, among millions of different   people exist also the treads of God and if somebody has preserved in his soul the inward desire to God and his call to us in Christ and His Church, so God will catch him â€Å"wi th an unseen hook and a invisible line which is long enough to let him wander to ends of the world and still to bring him back with a twitch upon the thread†.1It’s hard to speak about approval of one of the character’s conduct. Sebastian was too young to admit his mother’s doctrines without protest , his mother was too devoted to faith and didn’t pay much attention to her children feelings and deathbed conversion also isn’t too good way to express one’s point of view. It’s necessary to express everything during its life and this life must be lived according to the law of God without paying much attention if you are a Catholic or a Protestant. Threads of God are equal for everybody.1.Evelin Waugh, Brideshead Revisited(Paperback,1999), p.189Bibliography1. Evelin Waugh, Brideshead Revisited(Paperback,1999).

Shakespeares Fair Youth Sonnets

Shakespeares Fair Youth Sonnets The first of Shakespeares 126 sonnets are addressed to a young man – described as the â€Å"fair youth† – and reveal a deep, loving friendship. The speaker encourages the friend to procreate so that his youthful beauty can be carried on through his children. The speaker also believes that the man’s beauty can be preserved in his poetry, as the final couplet of Sonnet 17 reveals: But were some child of yours alive that time, [in the future]You should live twice: in it, and in my rhyme. Some believe that the intimacy of the relationship between the speaker and the young man is evidence of Shakespeare’s homosexuality. However, this is probably a very modern reading of a classical text. There was no public reaction to the relationship when the sonnets were first published by Thomas Thorpe in 1609, suggesting that the expression of a deep friendship through such language was perfectly acceptable in Shakespeares time. It was perhaps more shocking to the Victorian sensibility. Top 5 Most Popular Fair Youth Sonnets: Sonnet 1: From Fairest Creatures We Desire Increase Sonnet 18: Shall I Compare Thee To A Summers Day? Sonnet 29: When In Disgrace With Fortune and Mens EyesSonnet 73: That Time Of Year Thou Mayst In Me Behold Sonnet 116: Let Me Not To The Marriage Of True Minds A full list of the Fair Youth Sonnets (Sonnets 1 – 126) is also available.

Taiwan Interesting Facts and History

Taiwan Interesting Facts and History The island of Taiwan floats in the South China Sea, just over one hundred miles from the coast of mainland China. Over the centuries, it has played an intriguing role in the history of East Asia, as a refuge, a mythical land, or a land of opportunity. Today, Taiwan labors under the burden of not being fully recognized diplomatically. Nonetheless, it has a booming economy and is now also a functioning capitalist democracy. Capital and Major Cities Capital: Taipei, population 2,635,766 (2011 data) Major Cities: New Taipei City, 3,903,700 Kaohsiung, 2,722,500 Taichung, 2,655,500 Tainan, 1,874,700 Taiwans Government Taiwan, formally the Republic of China, is a parliamentary democracy. Suffrage is universal for citizens 20 years old and older. The current head of state is President Ma Ying-jeou. Premier Sean Chen is the head of government and President of the unicameral legislature, known as the Legislative Yuan. The President appoints the Premier. The Legislature has 113 seats, including 6 set aside to represent Taiwans aboriginal population. Both executive and legislative members serve four-year terms. Taiwan also has a Judicial Yuan, which administers the courts. The highest court is the Council of Grand Justices; its 15 members are tasked with interpreting the constitution. There are lower courts with specific jurisdictions as well, including the Control Yuan which monitors corruption. Although Taiwan is a prosperous and fully-functioning democracy, it is not recognized diplomatically by many other nations. Only 25 states have full diplomatic relations with Taiwan, most of them small states in Oceania or Latin America because the Peoples Republic of China (mainland China) has long withdrawn its own diplomats from any nation that recognized Taiwan. The only European state that formally recognizes Taiwan is Vatican City. Population of Taiwan The total population of Taiwan is approximately 23.2 million as of 2011. Taiwans demographic make-up is extremely interesting, both in terms of history and ethnicity. Some 98% of the Taiwanese are ethnically Han Chinese, but their ancestors migrated to the island in several waves and speak different languages. Approximately 70% of the population are Hoklo, meaning that they are descended from Chinese immigrants from Southern Fujian who arrived in the 17th century. Another 15% are Hakka, descendants of migrants from central China, mainly Guangdong Province. The Hakka are supposed to have immigrated in five or six major waves beginning just after the reign of Qin Shihuangdi (246 - 210 BCE). In addition to the Hoklo and Hakka waves, a third group of mainland Chinese arrived in Taiwan after the Nationalist Guomindang (KMT) lost the Chinese Civil War to Mao Zedong and the Communists. Descendants of this third wave, which took place in 1949, are called waishengren and make up 12% of Taiwans total population. Finally, 2% of Taiwanese citizens are aboriginal people, divided into thirteen major ethnic groups. This is the Ami, Atayal, Bunun, Kavalan, Paiwan, Puyuma, Rukai, Saisiyat, Sakizaya, Tao (or Yami), Thao, and Truku. Taiwanese aborigines are Austronesian, and DNA evidence suggests that Taiwan was the starting point for the peopling of the Pacific islands by Polynesian explorers. Languages The official language of Taiwan is Mandarin; however, the 70% of the population who are ethnic Hoklo speak the Hokkien dialect of Min Nan (Southern Min) Chinese as their mother tongue. Hokkien is not mutually intelligible with Cantonese or Mandarin. Most Hoklo people in Taiwan speak both Hokkien and Mandarin fluently. The Hakka people also have their own dialect of Chinese which is not mutually intelligible with Mandarin, Cantonese or Hokkien - the language is also called Hakka. Mandarin is the language of instruction in Taiwans schools, and most radio and TV programs are broadcast in the official language as well. The aboriginal Taiwanese have their own languages, though most can also speak Mandarin. These aboriginal languages belong to the Austronesian language family rather than the Sino-Tibetan family. Finally, some elderly Taiwanese speak Japanese, learned in school during the Japanese occupation (1895-1945), and do not understand Mandarin. Religion in Taiwan Taiwans constitution guarantees freedom of religion, and 93% of the population profess one faith or another. Most adhere to Buddhism, often in combination with the philosophies of Confucianism and/or Taoism. Approximately 4.5% of Taiwanese are Christians, including about 65% of Taiwans aboriginal people. There are a wide variety of other faiths represented by less than 1% of the population: Islam, Mormonism, Scientology, Bahai, Jehovahs Witnesses, Tenrikyo, Mahikari, Liism, etc. Taiwans Geography Taiwan, formerly known as Formosa, is a large island about 180 kilometers (112 miles) off the coast of southeast China. It has a total area of 35,883 square kilometers (13,855 square miles). The western third of the island is flat and fertile, so the vast majority of Taiwans people live there. In contrast, the eastern two-thirds are rugged and mountainous, and hence much more sparsely populated. One of the most famous sites in eastern Taiwan is the Taroko National Park, with its landscape of peaks and gorges. The highest point in Taiwan is Yu Shan, 3,952 meters (12,966 feet) above sea level. The lowest point is sea level. Taiwan sits along the Pacific Ring of Fire, situated at a suture between the Yangtze, Okinawa and Philippine tectonic plates. As a result, it is seismically active; on September 21, 1999, a magnitude 7.3 earthquake hit the island, and smaller tremors are quite common. Climate of Taiwan Taiwan has a tropical climate, with a monsoonal rainy season from January through March. Summers are hot and humid. The average temperature in July is about 27 °C (81 °F), while in February the average drops to 15 °C (59 °F). Taiwan is a frequent target of Pacific typhoons. Taiwans Economy Taiwan is one of Asias Tiger Economies, along with Singapore, South Korea, and Hong Kong. After World War II, the island received a huge influx of cash when the fleeing KMT brought millions in gold and foreign currency from the mainlands treasury to Taipei. Today, Taiwan is a capitalist powerhouse  and a major exporter of electronics and other high-tech products. It had an estimated 5.2% growth rate in its GDP in 2011, despite the global economic downturn and weakened demand for consumer goods. Taiwans unemployment rate is 4.3% (2011), and a per capita GDP of $37,900 US. As of March 2012, $1 US 29.53 Taiwanese New Dollars. History of Taiwan Humans first settled the island of Taiwan as early as 30,000 years ago, although the identity of those first inhabitants is unclear. Around 2,000 BCE or earlier, farming people from the mainland of China immigrated to Taiwan. These farmers spoke an Austronesian language; their descendants today are called Taiwanese aboriginal people. Although many of them stayed in Taiwan, others continued on to populate the Pacific Islands, becoming the Polynesian peoples of Tahiti, Hawaii, New Zealand, Easter Island, etc. Waves of Han Chinese settlers arrived in Taiwan via the off-shore Penghu Islands, perhaps as early as 200 BCE. During the Three Kingdoms period, the emperor of Wu sent explorers to seek islands in the Pacific; they returned with thousands of captive aboriginal Taiwanese. The Wu decided that Taiwan was barbaric land, not worthy of joining the Sinocentric trade and tribute system. Larger numbers of Han Chinese began to come in the 13th and then again in the 16th centuries. Some accounts state that one or two ships from Admiral Zheng Hes first voyage might have visited Taiwan in 1405. European awareness of Taiwan began in 1544 when the Portuguese sighted the island and named it Ilha Formosa, beautiful island. In 1592, Toyotomi Hideyoshi of Japan sent an armada to take Taiwan, but the aboriginal Taiwanese fought the Japanese off. Dutch traders also established a fort on Tayouan in 1624, which they called Castle Zeelandia. This was an important way-station for the Dutch on their way to Tokugawa Japan, where they were the only Europeans allowed in to trade. The Spanish also occupied northern Taiwan from 1626 to 1642 but were driven off by the Dutch. In 1661-62, pro-Ming military forces fled to Taiwan to escape the Manchus, who had defeated the ethnic-Han Chinese Ming Dynasty in 1644 and were extending their control southward. The pro-Ming forces expelled the Dutch from Taiwan and set up the Kingdom of Tungnin on the southwest coast. This kingdom lasted just two decades, from 1662 to 1683, and was beset by tropical disease and a lack of food. In 1683, the Manchu Qing Dynasty destroyed the Tungnin fleet and conquered the renegade little kingdom. During the Qing annexation of Taiwan, different Han Chinese groups fought one another and the Taiwanese aborigines. Qing troops put down a serious rebellion on the island in 1732, driving the rebels to either assimilate or take refuge high in the mountains. Taiwan became a full province of Qing China in 1885 with Taipei as its capital. This Chinese move was precipitated in part by increasing Japanese interest in Taiwan. In 1871, the Paiwan aboriginal people of southern Taiwan captured fifty-four sailors who were stranded after their ship ran aground. The Paiwan beheaded all the shipwrecked crew, who were from the Japanese tributary state of the Ryukyu Islands. Japan demanded that Qing China compensate them for the incident. However, the Ryukyus were also a tributary of the Qing, so China rejected Japans claim. Japan reiterated the demand, and the Qing officials refused again, citing the wild and uncivilized nature of Taiwanese aborigines. In 1874, the Meiji government sent an expeditionary force of 3,000 to invade Taiwan; 543 of the Japanese died, but they managed to establish a presence on the island. They were not able to establish control of the entire island until the 1930s, however, and had to use chemical weapons and machine guns to subdue the aboriginal warriors. When Japan surrendered at the end of World War II, they signed control of Taiwan over to mainland China. However, since China was embroiled in the Chinese Civil War, the United States was supposed to serve as the primary occupying power in the immediate post-war period. Chiang Kai-sheks Nationalist government, the KMT, disputed American occupation rights in Taiwan and set up a Republic of China (ROC) government there in October of 1945. The Taiwanese greeted the Chinese as liberators from harsh Japanese rule, but the ROC soon proved corrupt and inept. When the KMT lost the Chinese Civil War to Mao Zedong and the Communists, the Nationalists retreated to Taiwan and based their government in Taipei. Chiang Kai-shek never relinquished his claim over mainland China; likewise, the Peoples Republic of China continued to claim sovereignty over Taiwan. The United States, preoccupied with the occupation of Japan, abandoned the KMT in Taiwan to its fate, fully expecting that the Communists would soon route the Nationalists from the island. When the Korean War broke out in 1950, however, the US changed its position on Taiwan; President Harry S Truman sent the American Seventh Fleet into the Straits between Taiwan and the mainland to prevent the island from falling to the Communists. The US has supported Taiwanese autonomy ever since. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Taiwan was under the authoritarian one-party rule of Chiang Kai-shek until his death in 1975. In 1971, the United Nations recognized the Peoples Republic of China as the proper holder of the Chinese seat in the UN (both the Security Council and the General Assembly). The Republic of China (Taiwan) was expelled. In 1975, Chiang Kai-sheks son, Chiang Ching-Kuo, succeeded his father. Taiwan received another diplomatic blow in 1979 when the United States withdrew its recognition from the Republic of China and instead recognized the Peoples Republic of China. Chiang Ching-Kuo gradually loosened his grip on absolute power during the 1980s, rescinding the state of martial law that had lasted since 1948. Meanwhile, Taiwans economy boomed on the strength of high-tech exports. The younger Chiang passed away in 1988, and further political and social liberalization led to the free election of Lee Teng-hui as president in 1996.

The Grin That Apes A Smile Essays - Motivation, Philosophy Of Life

The Grin That Apes A Smile Essays - Motivation, Philosophy Of Life The Grin that Apes a Smile "Optimism, n. The doctrine, or belief that everything is beautiful, including what is ugly, everything good, especially the bad, and everything right that is wrong. It is held with greatest tenacity by those accustomed to the mischance of falling into adversity, and is most acceptably expounded with the grin that apes a smile. It is hereditary, but fortunately not contagious," writes Ambrose Bierce in The Devil's Dictionary. Optimism is more traditionally known as the belief that everything will get better, and that all things are for the best. Unfortunately for the characters of Candide, nothing ever works out for the best, despite the great optimism they exhibit. As a result, they become sophisticated enough to accept things as they are. Optimism cannot survive in the real world. The impracticality of optimism is exhibited in many different characters and events throughout the book. To begin with, Voltaire makes constant sardonic references to the phrase "all is for the best," throughout the narrative. In just four pages, he is able to use this phrase four times when describing the horrible events that happen to Candide. Also, the idea of optimism is shown to be unrealistic when the Old Woman states that everyone thinks they have the worst life in the world. This makes the point that one cannot be optimistic when there is so much suffering going on around them. Additionally, optimism is proven to be illogical when Candide is finally able to marry his love, Cunegonde, after spending much time and money questing to be with her. By the time he gets her, she is ugly and unwanted by Candide, thus making the entire quest for her unnecessary, and his optimism at the fact that he would soon be with her unwarranted. Moreover, the impracticality of optim! ism is shown when Pangloss changes from being a optimist to a realist. By doing this, Pangloss shows how quickly optimism can be destroyed by misfortune. In addition, optimism is shown to be a nonrealistic idea through the characterization of Martin, the pessimistic philosopher. Martin's pessimism in the book is the only constant, while the other characters are constantly on an emotional roller-coaster. Thus, Martin is the most stable character in the book, proving that pessimism is more practical than optimism when one has to deal with reality. Finally, the impracticality of optimism is shown when Candide decides, rather than continue to hope for the best, to accept reality as it is, and tend his garden. When he does this, he proves that the only practical way to deal with life is to accept the things that happen to you, rather than to hope for the best out of every situation. Many bad things happen to the good people in the book Candide. Even though they have seemingly inexhaustible amounts of optimism, things never get better for any of them. Because of this, they eventually wise up and begin to accept things as they are, rather than wanting to have things as they should be. In doing this, they destroy their impractical and destructive optimism for a more useful philosophy of life.

Social issues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Social issues - Essay Example abor in the West African cocoa farms; the situation has worsened today and more casualties have been involved in the abuse.They are hundreds of thousands and are forced to work as slaves with little or no pay at all. They work under the harshest conditions that include receiving all sorts of mistreatment from their bosses; they are beaten up, being locked in small huts, and are badly fed with an unbalanced diet. They usually rely on the bananas and the cocoa fruits that they eat. Latest statistics estimates reveal that approximately twelve thousand to two hundred thousand children are taken as slaves in West Africa. They work for twelve hours to fifteen hours in a day, and they are ten to twelve years old. Ironically, in all the countries where slave trade is carried out, slavery is illegal but the laws are bent, and slavery is practiced at a high rate. One of the West African countries that have deteriorated in its practice of child labor is the Ivory Coast. Every year, there is an approximate value of three million tons of chocolate that are consumed in the whole world (The film). Ivory Coast is the primary supplier of Chocolate in the entire world with forty-three percent of the total worlds supplied cocoa. However, the success of this industry is dependent on how many children are exploited under the child labor practices. From the Documentary, it is shown how thousands of Malian children are transported to Ivory Coast by rogue slave traders the trade remains unknown by most of the laws enforcers since the farms are small and isolated. Traders are usually found hanging in the bus stations and targets children who are alone or those begging for food. They then lure them to travel to Ivory Coast with them, and then they exchange the abducted children with farmers who are in a need of cheap labor with money. Most of the farms are found in the plains where access of people is rare hence nobody can recognize the presence of the illegal trade among the

International Business Law (ARTICLE WILL BE GIVEN ) Essay

International Business Law (ARTICLE WILL BE GIVEN ) - Essay Example In this regard McDodgy has various defenses as stipulated by the law. McDodgy established his business as SpuEx which is different from FedEx. The two companies deal with totally different issues. FedEx being an international deal with freight issues while SpudEx was to provide delicious hot French fries. Therefore there is likely to be no confusion caused to both customers as they deal with different business. This is evident from Victoria case where the court held, " The record in this case establishes that an army officer who saw the advertisement of the opening of a store named "Victor's Secret" did make the mental association with "Victoria's Secret," but it also shows that he did not therefore form any different impression of the store that his wife and daughter had patronized. There is a complete absence of evidence of any lessening of the capacity of the Victoria's Secret mark to identify and distinguish goods or services sold in Victoria's Secret stores or advertised in its catalogs. The officer was offended by the ad, but it did not change his conception of Victoria's Secret. His offense was directed entirely at petitioners, not at respondents. Moreover, the expert retained by respondents had nothing to say about the impact of petitioners' name on the strength of respondents' mark. (Wardman 2002) Section 1055 of the Lanham Act clearly specifies that "where a registered mark or a mark sought to be registered is or may be used legitimately by related companies, such use shall there to the benefit of the registrant or applicant for registration and such use shall not affect the validity of such mark or its registration, provided such mark is not used in such manner as to deceive the public. If for first use of a mark by a person is controlled by the registrant or applicant for registration of the mark will respect to the nature and quality of the goods or services, such first use shall inure to the benefit of the registrant or applicant, as the case may be" (www.bitlaw .com) McDodgy can rely on the fact that the trademark in contention is not famous and that the clients of FedEx will not be deceived by the use of such trademark by him. Given the nature of goods and services provided by McDodgy's business and that of FedEx then clients of FedEx are unlikely to be confused. The point however, is McDodgy's use of trademark is not an

Critique on another students project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Critique on another students project - Essay Example Thus, we have a Prioress who is a perfect exponent of table dining manners, a Monk who has amassed a huge fortune and leads an aristocratic life and a miller whose expertise lies in telling lascivious tales. Though many critics have pointed out the so-called anti-feminist presentation of Chaucer's characters, they are largely true of a country where moral ethics were dwindling, largely due to the coming of the Renaissance and also because the pseudo chivalry of love, honour and fame of the medieval times were beginning to loose ground. The Canterbury Tales are emblematic of a society that was under going a change: a society that had become decadent and was on the verge of a huge re-birth, to be brought about by the Renaissance. If Canterbury Tales operates to be largely a social documentary of its times, John Lydgate's The Fall of Princes operates within the popular medieval genre of "advice to princes" literature. Deriving from French sources, Lydgate offers his readers the various conflicts experienced between the autocratic Church and the state authority. It not only anticipates the problems of the Divine Rights Policy, whereby a king ruled upon his subjects as the religiously chosen one, but also shows the element of corruption which had become synonymous to the medieval Churches.

Biometric System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Biometric System - Essay Example These biometric cards have a great amount of use and the government introduced the same in order to cut down on the wastage of resources and to ensure national security. According to ministers, this card was introduced so that people would not have to have various other cards as per their identity proof and thus it would make identification for owning certain products, traveling around the country and abroad etc. better. Furthermore, it would help the government to easily keep a tab on each and every citizen residing within the country and the citizens would be able to use the social security services without misusing the same. After conducting various meetings and consultations regarding the introduction of such a system for the purpose of evaluation and tracking of every citizen within the country, the government decided to go ahead with the same because the main merit of working with this system in place would mean that the government has the ability to clearly and properly identify each and every person living in the country and thus have his records, which would further lead to a large bout of development as they would be able to understand the situation of different people better. The government also tried to keep a check on terrorist activities and thus provided that having such a system in place would really help to curb the same. In the United Kingdom, efforts were made and the majority passed the implementation of the bill for the introduction of biometric cards in the Parliament.

Service Delivery Model Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Service Delivery Model - Essay Example rces of managing the facilities and services demanded, allocation and appointment of brilliant and experienced staff members at various positions, total cost, quick and comprehensive conducting and displaying of facilities and showing neatness, appropriateness and decorum in every activity and service being offered. Quick and immediate response to the suddenly appeared problem as well as to combat with the uneven situation also include in the broad concept of service delivery. Since the present study has been focused on the services being offered by Baderman Island Resort to the wide range of its clients for event conducting, the following things are required from the event management organization: Conclusion: To conclude it becomes evident that service delivery model presents a comprehensive picture of the exercising of services rendered by the resort for its guests. The Baderman Island Resort has to make hard and sincere efforts for providing its 800 guests with a comfortable, luxurious and lavish atmosphere during their stay at the resort. The most important matter before the management is allocation of right person against the right place in order to meet with any challenge during the course of time. Five day really mean a lot for exercising of services to such a wide range of people, which may create many types of problems for the management in one way or the other. Maintenance of patience and dedication to the duties and obligations may be highly supportive in respect of making the event a remarkable success and a feather in the cap of the

Biometric System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Biometric System - Essay Example These biometric cards have a great amount of use and the government introduced the same in order to cut down on the wastage of resources and to ensure national security. According to ministers, this card was introduced so that people would not have to have various other cards as per their identity proof and thus it would make identification for owning certain products, traveling around the country and abroad etc. better. Furthermore, it would help the government to easily keep a tab on each and every citizen residing within the country and the citizens would be able to use the social security services without misusing the same. After conducting various meetings and consultations regarding the introduction of such a system for the purpose of evaluation and tracking of every citizen within the country, the government decided to go ahead with the same because the main merit of working with this system in place would mean that the government has the ability to clearly and properly identify each and every person living in the country and thus have his records, which would further lead to a large bout of development as they would be able to understand the situation of different people better. The government also tried to keep a check on terrorist activities and thus provided that having such a system in place would really help to curb the same. In the United Kingdom, efforts were made and the majority passed the implementation of the bill for the introduction of biometric cards in the Parliament.

Labour Law in Canada Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Labour Law in Canada - Research Paper Example Additionally, the wrangles and inadequacies that the firm experiences, especially communication, might have emanated from the absence of proper training. Therefore, the employer and the executive ought to institute adequate policies, which would impart adequate knowledge to the staff. This is via shunning utilization of its own staff to train fellow peers regardless of the post that they hold. Since, these members of staff also require training due to their evidenced misconduct while dealing with their peers, for illustration, Williams. Prior to any terminations, the firm via its executive ought to have prepared notices meant to inform the staffs regarding the core reasons that prompted their intended discontinuations (Karabegovic 2011). This would be according to the dates stipulated by labour laws, which stipulates when one started working and the duration or alternatively using termination pay option. What are the critical issues to be decided by the board? Employees’ mode of termination was pathetic coupled with rudeness especially by the executives. For example, Williams who rather than sending notices to the staffs or summoning them before utilized the telephone in executing the advocated termination by the employer. The company did not even bother to address the workers regarding reasons, which prompted their terminations. In addition, the issue of meagre wages did demoralize the workers (Karabegovic 2011). Consequently, the employer should improve the staff’s both physical and invisible environment, which will enhance their morale and productivity. These encompass the Store 58’s floor and resolving of the evident wrangles amid the... What are the critical issues to be decided by the board? Employees’ mode of termination was pathetic coupled with rudeness especially by the executives. For example, Williams who rather than sending notices to the staffs or summoning them before utilized the telephone in executing the advocated termination by the employer. The company did not even bother to address the workers regarding reasons, which prompted their terminations. In addition, the issue of meagre wages did demoralize the workers (Karabegović 2011). Consequently, the employer should improve the staff’s both physical and invisible environment, which will enhance their morale and productivity. These encompass the Store 58’s floor and resolving of the evident wrangles amid the staffs. Which party bears the burden of proof and why? In this situation, the employer via the managerial body bears the burden of proof due to their witnessed misconduct. This is especially the manner in which the executive contacted terminations coupled with their rude remarks especially towards the employees (Karabegović 2011).

Michael Moore Capitailism a Love Story Review Essay Example for Free

Michael Moore Capitailism a Love Story Review Essay The film Capitalism: A Love Story is a documentary by Michael Moore which outlines the negative effects capitalism has on modern society. Moore points out that capitalism gives people the opportunity to make a lot of money and to have a high standard of living. However, for many workers, making an income to support a family can be quite impossible. At one time, you could find a secure job and live a good life, but capitalism has evolved into a system of greed where only the rich get richer, and the middle class get poorer with no chance to better themselves. This review will analyze the positive and negative impacts of capitalism shown in the film, as well as provide my comments as to why I enjoyed the film. Capitalism gives us the freedom to do what we want and to make what we want of ourselves. It gives one the opportunity to work as much or as little as one wants, and to have the ability to make more money than others. At one time, if you worked hard, you could make a lot of money, and you could purchase a house, cars and many material possessions for yourself and your family. One could argue that even today, with a good education and a secure job, one could enjoy the benefits of a good life. Thus, corporations provided jobs, infrastructure and security for its employees and subcontractors. However, corporations have evolved and will continue to evolve. In some cases, modern companies have evolved positively where they can profit and, at the same time, treat all employees including CEOs fairly. Some such businesses are run democratically by all the workers, who also own the company, because they have an equal say and vote in the running of the operation. These worker-owned companies, such as the bread company in California, provide a good income for all their workers. The employees share equally in the profits, and profit sharing is not dependent on the position one holds. One owner commented that the more hours one works toward the benefit of the company, the more one shares in the profit. Detrimentally, many corporations have evolved negatively where the CEOs are only concerned about filling their own personal pockets with increasing profits and not caring at all about the well-being of their employees. Michael Moore eagerly points out the negative impacts capitalism has on society. Capitalism no longer provides people with the long-term sustainability needed to support themselves and their families. A good example of this is when Moore speaks out about his hometown of Flint, Michigan, and the GM plant where most of the citizens worked. When the automotive company shut down, the workers lost their jobs, and they had nowhere to turn for money. Moore alluded the reason the plant shut down was for the CEOs’ benefit because they were trying to make more profit, while not giving a second thought for the welfare of the people of Flint. As a result, many families lost their homes, and Flint became an abandoned city. Capitalism does not care about the average person because it is a system where corporations compete for higher profits and more benefits for the rich CEOs. If the GM plant in Flint was planning to close, and there was any regard for its employees, why was there no effort made to retrain employees with skills needed for other jobs so that they could continue to support their families and debts? In fact, CEOs of large corporations lobby and influence government policies to permit special tax cuts and bonuses allowing corporate officials to make more money, and in return, greedy government officials also benefit by receiving corporate favours and benefits. Thus, Wall Street and government officials help fill each other’s bank accounts.

Tourism In The Kingdom Of Saudi Arabia

Tourism In The Kingdom Of Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia is known to the world as the center of Islam and one of the very few countries in the world to have maintained Islamic law the sharia. According to the U.S department of state (2010) Saudi Arabia remained as an absolute monarchy until 1992, at which time the Saud royal family introduced the countrys first constitution based on the sharia. With an area of about 865,000 square miles, Saudi Arabia is roughly one-third the size of the continental United States, and the same size as all of Western Europe. Saudi Arabias oil region and main source of wealth lies along the Persian Gulf. This oil-derived wealth allowed the country to provide free health care and education while not collecting any taxes from its people. At the time of World War II Saudi Arabia had one-third of all known oil reserves, but falling demand and rising production outside the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) endangered the country with domestic unrest and undermining its influence in the Gulf area. However, they swiftly recovered with a blossoming economy. Standard of living is calculated by ranks, such as real income per person and poverty ranks. Measures such as access and quality of health care, income growth inequality and educational standards are also used. The best statistic for measuring standard of living is the same one the UN uses to measure the level of development of a nation. The human development index (HDI) which is used as an alternative to measuring GDP in order to determine the countrys well-being. The HDI provides a measure of the average three aspects of human development, living a long and healthy life, education and having a decent standard of living. According to the latest U.N human development report (2007) Saudi Arabias HDI value is .843. This denotes that Saudi Arabia ranks high on the human development index. Other aspects taken into consideration when measuring the kingdoms HDI are life expectancy rates, under 5 mortality rates, and literacy rate. According to the latest U.N human development report (2007) Saudi Arabias life expectancy rate is 72.7 years old. The under 5 mortality rate in Saudi Arabia is 21.27 deaths per 1,000 according to the World Bank (2008). In terms of literacy rate only 85% of Saudi Arabians are literate. The Saudi government is working on improving the literacy rate in Saudi Arabia. According to the latest U.N human development report (2009) Saudi Arabias GDP rank minus HDI rank is at -19 a negative number indicates that the HDI rank is lower than the GDP per capita (PPP US$) and that poverty is low in that country. Gender inequality occurs on a daily bases in Saudi Arabia. According to Abdella (2010) the kingdom allows men to twice the inheritance that women are allowed. Women are required to have a guardian escort them for many of lifes daily tasks. Without the presence of a guardian, a woman cannot study, access health services, marry, travel abroad, have a business or even access an ambulance in an emergency. Saudi women do not have the right to drive. It is illegal for a woman to be in the company of a man who is not in her immediate family. Young women are still not allowed to study certain subjects, such as geology however it is indicated that women can travel abroad alone for studies .On the subject of polygamy, men are permitted by law to have up to four wives. Women do not have equal access to the courts or an equal opportunity to obtain justice. Abdella (2010) acknowledged that the government ought to evaluate laws and policies and revise basic Laws in order to ensure gender equality and exclude the discrimination of women. In Saudi Arabia population growth is outpacing the economic growth and availability of services and infrastructure in the country. The CIA world fact book (2010) proved that by contrast to the U.S, Saudi Arabia experiences a high population growth rate of 1.85%. Saudi Arabias growth rate is lower than average developing countries, which is typically around 2.5%; but higher than the U.S 1% population growth rate. Due to its population Growth Issues Saudi Arabia is facing difficulties in providing jobs, water, food and energy to its indigenous young population and there is a widening gap between the ability of the economy to create jobs and the population growth rate. A major difference between economic growth and human development is that economic growth focuses on the enlargement of income, while Human development focuses on enlarging all human options. According to United Nations human Development Program (2010) education, health, clean environment and material well being do not necessarily depend on income. Thus, the options available for improving peoples lives are inclined to the quality of economic growth in its wider sense, and the impact is by no means confined to quantitative aspects of such growth. The end goal of investment in human capital, in terms of health, education, nutrition and training, is to boost production and generate additional income. Investments in physical infrastructure are a crucial attribute of Saudi Arabias current economic development drive. According to Hayward (2009) the kingdom seeks to reduce its reliance on the oil industry. Saudi Arabia announced a huge economic stimulus budget for 2009, allocating more money for education and an increase in public spending by 15.8 per cent. The Saudi Government plans to spend a tremendous amount of money on infrastructure projects in the next five years as the kingdom seeks to benefit from lower construction costs amid the global financial crunch. The construction division will be motivated by the launch of six economic cities to be completed by 2020. According to Hayward (2009) these six new industrialized cities will diversify Saudi Arabias economy and are expected to amplify GDP. Projects currently underway in the Kingdom include two huge railway initiatives, which will boost trade and tourism networks. Work continues to expand in Saudi Arabias port network as the country contests with other Gulf States to offer a gateway to Middle East markets. With the expanding population growth issues the pressure is being put forth on the countrys utilities. The Saudi agricultural sector is the second largest industry in the Kingdom. Saudi Arabia has achieved immense agricultural development, conquering the difficulties of scarce rain, meager subterranean water, limited local manpower and widely dispersed cultivatable lands. According to the CIA world fact book (2010) many individuals migrate to Saudi Arabia for employment. In 2009 only 6.75% of the population was employed in agriculture and 21.40% employed in the services. Agriculture has grown at an average annual rate of 8.7 percent since 1970 and accounts for more than 9.4 percent of Saudi Arabias GDP. According to The Saudi network (2010) in order to maintain agriculture, the Saudi Government has built more than 200 dams to preserve rainwater, with storage capacity of 689 million cubic meters. In order to finance this development, the Saudi Agricultural Bank was established in 1964. It is a specialized agricultural bank; it extends long-term, interest-free loans to farmers and agricultural companies. According to The Saudi network (2010) the Saudi Government has also supplied seeds and saplings at nominal prices. It has afforded veterinary and agricultural guidance and plant protection services. Other measures include the purchase of strategic agricultural crops, such as wheat and barley at high prices, through the General Organization for Grain Silos and Flour Mills. Public discussion about environmental issues has increased significantly throughout Saudi Arabia, Following a series of floods in the Kingdom. According to the Saudi network (2010) the most important environmental issue facing Jeddah is sewage. The estimates on the area of the city that is currently connected to the sewer pipes vary from 8-14%, with around 80% of houses using septic tanks. In recent years, the waste from the citys septic tanks has been discarded in the Briman Sewage Lake, better known as Musk Lake centre. However, environmental and health anxiety following last years floods, coupled with a royal decree ordering the emptying of the lake, have prompted city officials to find alternate solutions. The use of percolating pits septic tanks without a concrete bottom that allow sewage to drain into the ground led to soil and underground water contamination as well as a rise in the water table. The lack of a proper sewer system has created an ecological calamity. Global warm ing has also affected Saudi Arabia more than any other country recently. The temperature in Saudi Arabia has never allowed it to snow in Saudi Arabia. However, due to global warming it recently snowed in Saudi Arabia. Due to political conflict resulting from the wiki leaks incident the Saudi government is hesitant towards implementing environmental policies. No country in the world will be spared from the effects of the financial crisis and resulting in a global recession. According to Bourland (2008) For Saudi Arabia, it has completely shifted the focus of economic policy from controlling inflation to restoring confidence in the financial sector. We see the following key implications for the Saudi economy. Oil prices will be significantly lower than previously anticipated and reduced production will exacerbate the impact on oil revenues. Finance for local and foreign companies doing business in the Kingdom will be less easily available and more expensive. According to Bourland (2008) economic growth will slow as problems accessing suitably priced financing and lower oil revenues delay project implementation and impair confidence. Lower oil revenues will mean the end to the huge budget and current account surpluses of recent years. Sharply lower commodity prices and a strengthening of the riyal will cause inflation to fall back rapidly o ver the next 12 months. Due to corruption in Saudi Arabia, the Public choice theory would help improve Saudi Arabia. The Public choice theory is most effective when government agents are self interested and will not do things in the public interest and in situations where the government is corrupt. Public choice theory encourages minimized Government and maximized market in development strategies. Government policies in Saudi Arabia encourage gender, social, and educational inequality. Corruption is perceived as significant. According to the index of economic freedom (2010) Saudi Arabia ranks 80th out of 179 countries in transparency. Internationals Corruption Perceptions Index for 2008. The absence of transparency in government accounts and decision-making encourages a perception of corruption on the part of some members of the royal family and in the executive branch. Government procurement is an area of concern. Bribes, often disguised as commissions, are allegedly commonplace. Corruption is currently preventing Saudi Arabia from reaching its full economic potential. The less fortunate population of Saudi Arabia relies on paying off officials to get things done. Those without money are always left behind. Even wealthy citizens are affected by corruption due to the fact that they are unable to invest and expand their wealth. Crime rates are very low in Saudi Arabia due to their extreme punishments set by sharia laws. Consequently, crime does not have a significant impact on Saudi Arabias economic development. The main problem pertaining to crime in Saudi Arabia is its transnational trafficking Issues. According to the result of the Eighth United Nations Survey on Crime Trends and the Operations of Criminal Justice Systems (2002) Saudi Arabia has become a destination country for workers from South and Southeast Asia who are allegedly subjected to involuntary servitude physical and sexual abuse, non-payment of wages, confinement, and withholding of passports as a restriction on their movement. Domestic workers are predominantly vulnerable because they are restricted to the house in which they work, without being able to seek help. According to the result of the Eighth United Nations Survey on Crime Trends and the Operations of Criminal Justice Systems (2002) Saudi Arabia is also a destination country for N igerian, Yemeni, Pakistani, Afghan, Somali, Malian, and Sudanese children trafficked for forced begging and involuntary servitude as street vendors; some Nigerian women were reportedly trafficked into Saudi Arabia for commercial sexual exploitation Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy. The national government consists of a Council of Ministers, headed by the King, who holds the post of the Prime Minister. Its absolute monocracy regime has helped increase corruption within Saudi Arabia. The kingdom would be a very poor country without its oil revenues. There is a definite need for economic diversification for economic diversification is Saudi Arabia. Inequality and corruption are also major economic setbacks for Saudi Arabia. Gender inequality and human right violations occur on a daily bases in Saudi Arabia. Unfortunately, the government uses whatever interpretation of the Quran that is convenient for them in order to justify their greed and human Right Violations.

What Role Should The Government Play in Gun Control? Essay -- Second Am

What Role Should The Government Play in Gun Control? A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gun control is a real issue with Americans today. Many people have different opinions about how to handle our growing dilemma concerning guns. There are those who believe we should ban guns altogether and those who believe we should not ban or restrict the people's right to own guns at all. Both sides have valid arguments, but neither side seems to know how to compromise because of their very different opinions. I personally believe guns should be banned. However, those against gun control have very good arguments.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Second Amendment was written because of the colonists' fear of an all-powerful central government taking over, but there are many interpretations of how the Second Amendment reads. The court has never found the Second Amendment to clash with the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process clause which states that, "No state shall...deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law" (McClenaghan 522). This gave each state the right to set up their own rules and regulations, which I believe, is one reason why we have the problems that we do.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There have been four major cases heard by the Supreme Court which found that the fire-arm control laws are constitutional; United States v. Cruikshank (1986), Presser v. Illinois (1886), Miller v. Texas (1894), and the United States v. Miller (1939) (Strahinich 41). United States v. Miller was the most important. It supported a section of the National Firearms Act of 1934, basically stating that it is a crime to ship sawed off shotguns, machine guns, or silencers across state lines unless registered with the Treasury Department (McClenaghan 522).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The United States already has more than twenty thousand gun laws, but they do not seem to be making an impact. The first American gun control laws were written before the Revolutionary War. The most effective and more recent laws have been the Gun Control Act of 1986 and the Brady Law. The Gun Control Act of 1986 has a lot of impact on our rights concerning firearms today. It requires federal licensing and inspection of dealers with new and stricter guidelines. It restricted the sale of ammunition and firearms betwe... ...on of law enforcement officials and military. We might not be able to stop all of this gun violence but at least we can close loopholes that control the sale and distribution of guns in America. Next to automobiles, guns are the second most deadly consumer product on the market. There are over two hundred million guns in circulation today, compared to the mere fifty four million in 1950 (Roleff 142). Works Cited Dolan, Edward, Margaret Scariano. Guns in the United States. New York, New York: Moffa Press, Incorporated, 1994. pp.. 29-30, 55. Lott, J.R. More Guns Less Crime. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1998. pp.. 1-2. McClenaghan, William. American Government. Needham, Massachusetts:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Prentice Hall, 1993. pp.. 489, 522. Netzley, P.D. Issues in Crime. Sandiego, California: Lucent Books Inc., 2000. pp.. 32 Roleff, T.L. ed. Gun Control, Opposing Viewpoints. Sandiego, California:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Greenhaven Press Inc., 1997. pp.. 22-23, 25, 45, 47, 65-67, 76, 85, 117, 142. Strahinich, Helen. Guns in America. United States: Walker Publishing Company,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1992. pp.. 41, 48, 51. http://www.alphadogweb.com/firearms/gun_control_is_a_nice_phrase.htm

Lady Macbeth, Macbeths One-of-a-Kind Woman Essay -- Macbeth essays

Macbeth's One-of-a-Kind Woman      Ã‚  Ã‚   Shakespeare's Macbeth portrays the indomitable, manipulative character of Lady Macbeth through bold, sinister actions. Her character will be the subject of this essay.    Lily B. Campbell in her volume of criticism, Shakespeare's Tragic Heroes: Slaves of Passion, examines the effect of sin on the life of the first lady:    Act v presents swiftly and relentlessly the results of passion, of the passion which has become mortal sin. First it is Lady Macbeth that we see enduring the fate of the sinful in whom fear and remorse have already begun to effect the punishment for evil. That Shakespeare chose to manifest Lady Macbeth's melancholy as a disturbance in her sleep shows that he was a student of the moral philosophy of the time, for as we have seen earlier, all the accounts of fear are concerned with the effect of fear on sleep. (232)    In Shakespeare and Tragedy John Bayley interprets Lady Macbeth's character through her speech:    'The milk of human kindness' and the 'illness' that should attend ambition are cruder concepts, in Lady Macbeth's mouth, than they now seem to be. She is not saying her husband is too kind a man for this business, and with too healthy a spirit; 'kindness' means human nature, and Macbeth's is not mature or manly, has not learnt the necessary hardness of the world. Her husband is in a sense her child, fed with the milk which is natural to her, and when the word recurs in the Senecan speech which follows, she calls on the spirits that tend on mortal thoughts, schemes of murder, to turn her milk to gall. She will feed him on that to produce an appropriate response, as the armed men in the tale sprang from the sowing of dragon's teeth... ...Blakemore Evans. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1972.    Knights, L.C. "Macbeth." Shakespeare: The Tragedies. A Collectiion of Critical Essays. Alfred Harbage, ed. Englewwod Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964.    Mack, Maynard. Everybody's Shakespeare: Reflections Chiefly on the Tragedies. Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 1993.    Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. http://chemicool.com/Shakespeare/macbeth/full.html, no lin.    Siddons, Sarah. "Memoranda: Remarks on the Character of Lady Macbeth." The Life of Mrs. Siddons. Thomas Campbell. London: Effingham Wilson, 1834. Rpt. in Women Reading Shakespeare 1660-1900. Ann Thompson and Sasha Roberts, eds. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1997.    Wilson, H. S. On the Design of Shakespearean Tragedy. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1957.

Making Sustainable Large-Scale Change Possible: The Ontario Experience Essay

Whoever said that the only constant thing in the world is change is indeed a sage. That person could have acknowledged the statement based on personal experiences. Everything in the world changes from time to time- persons, government and even the climate. Changes are staple events in the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Changes often come as surprises. On organizational level, change could come as a way of intervention which may bring forth negative or positive consequences. The world today is filled with movements of people clamouring for change. The daily news in the television flash with headlines on citizens calling on their governments for reform; students protesting on the streets to demand democracy; environmentalists and animal-rights advocates asking for ban on chemicals; and so on. Practically, people yearn for change in their personal lives, work, laws, and in the government.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The education sector in some countries goes for change, too. In Ontario, Canada an overhaul in the public education system took place to address the problems plaguing the system.   Levin (2007) summarized the change as a strategy which serves as â€Å"an example of large-scale change in education that is respectful of educators, fair to students and communities and based on the best available knowledge† (p. 323).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The education system in Ontario, Canada suffered from setbacks since early 1990s due to government measures imposed (Levin, 2007).   There were reductions in staffing levels and increased in teachers’ workloads. Consequently, these yielded labour strikes, dissatisfaction and low-morale among the teachers. Levin reported that during the late 1990s, a change in the government system took place which adversely affected the education system. Local school districts were reduced to half, school principals were taken out of the teachers’ union and significant amount of funding was cut. Teachers took the brunt of these changes as the government then was deemed as critical of public teachers and schools.   Levin cited that the people were unhappy and dissatisfied with the public education system.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Canada’s 2003 election changed the educational atmosphere as it became the rallying cry of the Liberal Party, which won the election. Levin pointed out that the new government crafted new strategies (dubbed as the Literacy and Numeracy Strategy and the Student Success Strategy) in late 2003 to solve the problem of public education.   These have two main goals: to improve elementary school literacy and numeracy outcomes and increase high school graduation rates.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Now on its almost fifth year of implementation, the strategies proved effective. The Literacy and Numeracy Secretariat of the of Ontario’s Ministry of Education reported the following accomplishments through its 2006 Project Report, Making It Happen:   improved overall provincial rate of 64% for reading, writing and mathematics in Grade; about 17,000 schools improved by five or more percent in their Grade 6 reading scores; over 2000 schools got better reading scores among Grade 3 students; while 900 schools did better on both the Grades 3 and 6 reading scores.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Moreover, Literacy and Numeracy Secretariat reported in 2007 that the number of schools with very low performance dropped by three-fourths. Graduation rates rose by fiver percent, from 68% to 73% in school year 2005-2006. Levin wrote that there have been an obvious level of energy and enthusiasm and the number of teachers leaving the profession or opting for early retirement was reduced. Insight from Basic System Approach on the Ontario Case   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Ontario experience is one example of how a system works. From the previous lesson, Owens (2004) explained the interrelatedness of subsystems and the multiple causations. The problems of education in Ontario in the 1990s directly hit the teachers. These problems caused serious effects on the quality of education. In turn, the students were affected as they struggled with difficulties on subject areas such as reading and mathematics. Since Ontario is a highly-diversified province, students who are children of immigrants were also knocked down by the problems within the system.   One can see, as Owens emphasized, that the multiple causation of problems and solutions directly affect the whole system. My personal analysis is: as a system, the problem of one minute part ripples through the whole system, contributing to its downfall once left unguarded.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Ontario problem back then was caused by a change in the political leadership and system. Decisions imposed upon the teachers from the authorities led to successive breakdowns in the public educational system. Ultimately, Levin said that most parents lost their confidence in public education and resorted to private enrolment.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Reading through Levin’s article, I could say that the principles behind the continuing success of the Ontario public education system are consistent with our lessons and previous reading. Ontario is a success story; a model which is worth emulating.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Nevertheless, one may wonder: is the Ontario experience transferable? Can it be duplicated to other provinces within Canada and to other countries as well?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I should say that the Ontario experience is unique; for every situation is different from the rest. Many factors contribute to its situation such as the political, economic, cultural, and social atmospheres.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   But, despite of the given unique conditions, the strategies can be also applied to smaller systems on a case-to-case basis. Strategy such as reducing classroom size and student mentoring are very pragmatic. Likewise, the principles of participation, consultation and evaluation are quite universal which for me, makes the Ontario project can be reproduced or duplicated to other schools provided that the socio-political and the cultural aspects are integrated. I believe good practices are worth following and must be contextualized to ensure its effectiveness. It must also be sustained. Lessons Learned from the Ontario Experience   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Ontario example is a case which highlights the necessity of change. It demonstrates the power of change to generate positive results which impact the whole system.   There are significant lessons which we can pick from the article. Personally, I gained from reading Levin’s work.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The first lesson that struck me is the complexity of the educational system. Education is really indispensable to a country that it takes a government policy to influence the whole system. A government’s decision or ruling on the educational system either build or ruin a country. Countries count on their education department for productive, patriotic and loving citizens; good citizens are profitable to a country. I also realized that a government initiative is very powerful as it demands implementation and obedience from its constituents as compared with a grass-root level or city-level proposals. Political influence and leadership make the implementation of projects or programs more smoothly.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I also appreciate the consultation aspect of the Ontario project. I learned that consultation has benefits. Consultation is a venue where the voices of the concerned parties are heard. By this, there is representation. The suggestions of the parents and teachers are heard. As I ponder through the case, it came to me that consultation is one factor which makes a school system successful.   After all, parents and students are the clients of a school. Their voices must also be tapped for the proper implementation of school projects. Consulting the parents on their children’s concerns and inquiring them on issues are part of our profession as teachers or educators.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another particular lesson is the relevance of partnership. Levin discussed that the Ministry of Education forged partnerships with different local school boards for the implementation of the two strategies. The educational system has many stakeholders and they must be acknowledged and won over.   Through partnership, relationships are formed, allowing for a better working environment.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The reading taught me also that test and accountability matters. Like what the Ontario example demonstrated, tests are very important to measure the success of educational policy. Tests also work as gauges which measure the success of students. I was impressed by the fact the Ontario’s Ministry of Education directed its provincial and district offices to report on the public the progress indicators of the students.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There is no such thing as a complete or perfect program, as what I have reflected from the article. The Ontario experience is not without flaws. Levin wrote that the teachers feel overwhelmed by the tasks. There are challenges for every change or new programs to be implemented. There are always detractors and encouragers within a system. A program can be accepted or scorned. Either way, it is an inescapable reality.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In relation to change, it does not happen in an instant. It is not an overnight function. A change in the system may mean years of implementation. Time can only aid and sharpen its implementation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Lastly, to recognize the skills and the capabilities of the teachers is one winning factor in education. The Ontario problem commenced because of the government’s bias against the public school teachers (Levin, 2007).   Teachers are major stakeholders in the educational system; thus, there’s a need for acknowledgment and incentives. Teachers are important assets; therefore, they must be treated as invaluable human resource to the system. Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The strategies adopted by the Ontario Ministry of Education proved to be successful. Sustainable, large-scale projects can be a tough challenge but if all the systems are in agreement to it and proper delegation of work is done, it can become a pleasurable job and a welcomed change. Ontario has set an example; my conviction follows: impossible ideas can be realized if the stakeholders within the system are united. Bibliography Levin, B. (2007). Sustainable large-scale renewal. Journal of Educational Change, 8, 323-336. Owens, R. G. (2004). Organizational behavior in education: Adaptive leadership and School Reform. Boston MA: Allyn & Pearson, p. 19-21. Literacy and Numeracy Secretariat. (2007). Making it happen. Toronto: Ontario Ministry of Education. Retrieved April 11, 2008, from http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/literacynumeracy/makeithappen.pdf. p. 14

Apush Textbook Notes

Shaping of North America – Pangea Split North America formed – â€Å"America’s Mountains† = Rockies, Sierra Nevada, Cascades, Coast Ranges Peopling the Americas – 35,000 years ago = Ice Age Glaciers that connected Eurasia with N. America (present day Bering Sea) Nomadic Asian hunters (immigrant ancestors of the Natives) Trekked across the Bering isthmus for 250 centuries Reached far tip of S. America (15,000 miles from Siberia) By the time Europeans arrived in 1492, 54 million people inhabited the two Am. Continents Incas in PeruMayans in Central America Aztecs in Mexico – Four Great Nations (Natives, before colonists) Aztecs Maya Inca Cahokia – Maize = Indian corn – Built elaborate cities and carried on far-flung commerce – Mathematicians (made accurate astronomical observations) – Aztecs Sought the favor of their gods by offering human sacrifices (over 5,000 people ritually slaughtered for crowning of ONE chiefta in) The Earliest Americans – Agriculture Corn growing Accounted for size and sophistication of Na. A. in Mexico and S. A. 000 BC, hunter-gatherers in highland Mexico developed wild grass into the staple crop of corn – Became staff of life and foundation of complex, large-scare, centralized Aztec and Incan nation-states that eventually emerged Process went slowly and unevenly Corn planting reached American Southwest by 1200 BC – Pueblo people (Rio Grande valley) constructed irrigation systems to water their cornfields.Dwelled in villages of multistory buildings. – No dense concentrations of population or complex nation states comparable to the Aztec empire existed in N. Am. outside of Mexico when the Europeans arrived. Mound Builders (Ohio River valley), Anasazi (Southwest) sustained large settlements after incorporating corn planting. – Cultivation of MAIZE, BEANS, SQUASH – â€Å"Three-Sister† Farming: Beans growing on trellis of corn stalks and squash covering the planting mounds to retain moisture in the soil – Highest population densities: Creek, Choctaw, Cherokee – Natives in N. Am. lived in small, scattered, impermanent settlements – Women tended to crops, Men hunted, fished, gathered fuel and cleared fields for planting – Iroquois Developed matrilinear cultures, power and possessions passed down the female side of the family line.Natives didn’t want to manipulate nature aggressively – Revered physical world and endowed nature with spiritual properties Indirect Discoverers of the New World – Norse seafarers from Scandinavia had chanced upon the northeastern shoulder of N. Am. AD 1000. – Landed near present day Newfoundland Lots of grapes – Named Vinland Forgotten except for in song Europeans Enter Africa – Marco Polo (Italian adventurer) returned to Europe 1295, telling tales about China – Portuguese Columbus Comes upon a New World – Oct 12, 1492 = Sighted island in Bahamas – Discovery convulsed four continents Europe AfricaTwo Americas – Global economic system When Worlds Collide – Columbus Exchange â€Å"Discovered† America Old New: Wheat, sugar, rice, coffee, horses, cows, pigs, smallpox, measles, bubonic plague, influenza, typhus, diphtheria, scarlet fever, slave labor New Old: Gold, silver, corn, potatoes, pineapples, tomatoes, tobacco, beans, vanilla, chocolate, syphilis New race Hispanic/Latino The Spanish Conquistadores – 1500s God, glory, GOLD. Encomienda Any Spaniard with a farm or a mine can force natives to work for them – 1512: New laws of Spain (to address the above about Encomienda) – Europe + Africa + AmericasElizabeth Energizes England Francis Crake was a sea dog of Queen Elizabeth Sir Walter Raleigh organized a trip in 1585 in North Carolina’s Roanoke Island to try to colonized it England on the Eve of Empire 27-28: enclosing [enc losure]; tenancy; joint-stock companies since only the eldest son of the family could inherit, the others wuld look for fortune somewhere else the men joined joint stock exchange companies where they pooled together their finances England Plants the Jamestown Seedling Virginia Company; ‘rights of Englishmen’Received charter form Kind James I for a settlement in the New World Mainly for gold and passage to the Indies Guaranteed to overseas settlers the same rights of English men Even if their not in the country This would be the start of resentment from colonists before the revolution because of lack of rights of Englishmen 1606 2 ships landed near Chesapeake Bay May 24, 1607 Jamestown was founded After many voyages to Jamestown Many of the colonists were unaccustomed to fending for themselves and also wasted time looking for gold John Smith; Powhatan John SmithYoung adventure took control of Jamestown in 1608 His rule was : â€Å"he who shall not work shall not ear In December1607 he was kidnapped by Powhatan and subjected to a mock execution Pocahontas saved him by putting her head on top of his Symbolism was to impress Smith with Powhatans power and Indians desire for peaceful relations with the colonist Pocahontas was a intermediary between the 2 side to preserve shaky peace and provide for foodstuff ‘starving time’=winter People would eat dogs, cats, mice, corpses, one man even murdered his wife and ate her Only 60 settlers survived 609-1610 Pocahontas married John Rolfe and ended the First Anglo-Powhatan War in 1614 The Second Anglo-Powhatan War in 1644 defeated the VirginiansVirginia: Child of Tobacco Economy ‘built on tobacco’ John Rolfe became the â€Å"father of tobacco† and saved the economy of Virginia 1612 he perfected the methods of raising and curing weeds The Virginians were so concentrated planting tobacco that they had to important some of their food It ruined the soil 1619 (year before pilgrims c ame on the Mayflower)a Dutch ship came and sold 20 Africans House of Burgesses epresentative self government born in Virginia in 1619 London Company authorized settlers to summon an assembly known as House of Burgesses Royal Colony (what went wrong? ) **1624, James I(detested tobacco and he distrusted the House of Burgesses) revoked charter of the bankrupt Virginia Company, making Virginia a royal colony under his control Maryland: Catholic Haven Lord Baltimore; Maryland 2nd plantation colony was founded in 1624 by Lord Baltimore who is of a prominent English Catholic family(4th colony to be planted) he created Maryland as refuge for his fellow CatholicsThe Catholics were rewarded with great manors and land Source(s) of tension between Catholics and Protestants? The Catholic were barons while the Protestants were planters There was resentment which then brewed into the rebellion near the end of the century Maryland prospered because of the tobacco In fear of being overwhelmed by the Catholics, they supported the Act of Toleration in 1649 Toleration of Christians Bad for Jews, atheists ‘freedom of worship’ (how tolerant? Limits? ) Dominion- Many colonies, forced upon them New England Confederation -4 colonies, joined willinglyColonzing the Carolinas Carolina was founded un 1670s Rice was main export North Carolina separated from South Carolin in 1712 Most independent minded and least aristocratic of the 13 Late Coming Georgia: The Buffer Colony last of the 13 Georgia was to serve as abuffer Protected the valuable Carolinas (sugar/rice) from Spaniards (FL) and French (LA) Name after George II Founded by high minded group of philanthropists Produced silk/wine Haven for sould imprisioned for depts. Plantation Colonies Note characteristics: Southern ColoniesMaryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia They were devoted to exporting commercial agricultural products Tobacco and rice Wide scattered plantations made building schools and churches expensive and difficult Most except for some in NC and GA perfered aristocratic atmospheres All permitted relisious toleration sometax supported Church of England Relied on indentured servants/slaves later on First slaves were not Africans, they were Native Americans Constructed on rivers, easily transported * â€Å"God hath sifted a nation that he might send Choice Grain into this Wilderness† — what does this mean?William Bradford pilgram leader2 Rhode Island is the most liberal of the 13 colonies Makers of America: The English (50-51) Compare demographics of N. and S: ie, indentured males vs. families North was extreme weather, steril soil South hotdiseases Crash crops tobacco, rice, cotton Puritans vs. Indians Review Metacom’s War 1675 Metacom (King Phillip by the English)was Massasoit’s son (chief when the pilgrams landed) forged an alliance and mounted a series of coordinated assaults on English billages throught New Engalnd 1676 the war end ed and 52 Puritan towns had been attacked 2 towns were destroyed entirely drastically reduced the number of colonoist Seeds of Colonial Unity and Independence New England Confederation (note the date) 1643, 4 New England colonies banded together to form the NE Confederation defense against foes or potentional foes Indians, Dutch, French Runaway servants also were the Confederation’s problem Each member only had 2 votes Exclusive Puritan club Why does Charles II provide charters to Rhode Island and Connecticut? What does this say about the relationship between the colonies (esp. Massachusetts) and England in the 17th century?Connecticut 1662 a sea to sea charter grant which legalized the squatter settlements 1663 Rhode Island received charter which gave kingly sanction to the most religious toleraent government to try and get more colonies of the King’s side Andros Promotes the First American Revolution Dominion of New England 1686 How is it different from New England C onfederation? It was imposed from London Embraced all New Engalnd and then included NY and East and West Jersey Aimed at bolstering colonial defence in the event war with the Indians What is its relationship to the Navigation Acts?Designed to promot urgently needed efficiency in the administration of the English Navigation Laws Laws reflected the intensifying colonial rivalries of the 17th centery Sought to stitch Engalnd’s overseas possessions more tightly to the motherland by throttling American trade with countries not ruled by England Caused lots of smuggling Why does the Dominion break up? Head of he Dominion was Sir Edmund Andros Military background Harsh, strict He generated much hostility by his open affiliation with the despised Church of England Colonist were outraged by noisy and Sabbath profaning soldiers He stopped town meetingRestrictions of church, school, press†¦ Taxed people without consent Enforced unpopular Navigation Laws, suppress smuggling 688-1689 colonists engineered the memorable Glourious (Bloddless) Revolution broke up because of the Glourious War in England Dethrouned Chaotlic James II and enthroned Protestean rulars of Netherlands William III and Mary Found him because he dressed as a human How does turning Massachusetts into a Royal Colony affect Puritan control of politics? Why do William and Mary of England do this? Turned into royal colony in 1691New charter and governer *****What is Salutary Neglect, why does it begin, and what were its limits? New monarchs relaxed their grip on colonial trade Period of salutary neglect Hands off approach Sort of taxation, didn’t really enforce it Friction with English and Swedish Neighbors & Dutch Residues in New York *Peter Stuyvesant Expedition in 1655 led Lost his leg soldiering in the West Indies Charles II and the founding of New York 1664 Charles II granted the area to his Brother Duke of York New Amsterdam rename New York Dutch legacyDutch peppered place names all ov er including Harlem, Brookyn, Hell Gate, Easter eggs, Santa, waffles, bowling, sleighing, skating, and Kolf (golf) Penn’s Holy Experiment in Pennsylvania; Quaker Pennsylvania and Its Neighbors Quakers Arose in England during mid 1600s Offensive to authorities, civil and religious No clergy Deep conviction, abhorred strife and warfare Refused military service Advocates of passive resistance Pacifist (some of the 1st abolitionists) William Penn 1681 he secured a grant of fertile land from the kingPennsylvania (Penn’s Woodland) Best advertised of all colonies Unlike others Penn’s inducements were truthful Liberal land policy William Penn & Pennsylvania Launched his own colony in 1681 Philadelphia (brotherly love in Greek) Penn bought land from the Indians including Chrief Tammany He was so fair that the Quakers were among them unarmed and even used them as babysitters Philadelphia Quakers and Indians; Quaker tolerance (others; religions; slavery) and the Scots Iris h Very civil Other non Quaker and non Europeans moved in andWas unusually liberal and had a representative assembly elected by land owners No tax supported state church Death penetly only for treason and murder Forced by king to deny Jews and Catholics boting rights Attarted rich mix of ethic groups Quakers were shwerd businessmen By 1700 Penn surpassed BA and MA’s population and wealth New Jersey started in 1664 The Middle Ways in the Middle Colonies Name the â€Å"middle colonies: NY, NJ DE, PN ‘bread colonies’ [bread-basket of the British colonies in America] PN NY NJ Heavy wheat economy (now it’s Midwest , Nebraska, Iowa†¦.Make the comparison: â€Å"Middle Colonies† in more than just name: land holding politics, industry Midway between New England and the southern Generally intermediate in size (except NY) Fewer industries than north no plantation like the south Religious tolerance Good economy â€Å"Most American† – explain: All rounded Made it too the big city on his own Very successful Ethnically mixed Different religions Most democratic – Europeans and Africans adapted to the New World, Natives adapted to newcomers – Rigid doctrines of Puritanism softened – All colonies remained tied to England Regional differences – Increasing importance of slave labor to southern way of life The Unhealthy Chesapeake – Nasty, brutish, shot life for ChesapeakeMalaria, dysentery and typhoid took lots of lives – Majority of immigrants were single men in their late teens and early twenties (most perished soon after arrival) – Weak family ties – Chesapeake eventually acquired immunity – More women, more families – End of 17th century, white population of Chesapeake grew based on birthrate The Tobacco Economy – Chesapeake immensely hospitable to tobacco cultivation Intense cultivation exhausted soil – This enormous production depressed pr ices, but colonial Chesapeake tobacco growers responded to falling prices in the familiar way of farmers: by planting still more acres to tobacco and bringing still more product to marketMore tobacco = More labor – Indians died too quickly – African slaves cost too much – England had may displaced farmers – â€Å"Indentured servants† – Virginia and Maryland â€Å"Headright† System = Encourage importation of servant workers – Masters reaped benefits of landownership – Investments in servants into vast holdings in real estate â€Å"White slaves† represented more than ? of all European immigrants to Virginia and Maryland in the 17th century – Indentured servants Hard but hopeful life. Freedom dues. Frustrated Freemen and Bacon’s Rebellion – Broken hopes of acquiring land – Hard to find single woman to marry – â€Å"having little interest in the country† and causing ‘tum ults at the election to the disturbance of his majesty’s peace† – William Berkeley (Virginian governor) – About 1,000 Virginians broke out of control in 1676 – Revolt led by Nathaniel Bacon (planter) *Rebels mainly frontiersmen – Fiercely resented Berkeley’s friendly policies toward Indians (whose thriving furtrade the governor monopolized * – Fell murderously upon Indians, friendly and hostile alike, chased Berkeley from Jamestown, and put the torch to the capital * – Berkeley hung over 20 rebels * – Distant English King could scarcely imagine depths of passion and fear that Bacon’s Rebellion excited in Virginia Ignited smoldering unhappiness of landless former servants Pitted frontiersmen against haughty gentry – Less troublesome laborers to toil in the restless tobacco kingdom – Eyes it on Africa. Colonial Slavery – 10 million Africans – 400,000 of them ended up in N. Am. †“ Africans brought to Jamestown 1619, but as late as 1670s, numbered only 2,000 in Virginia – 1680s – Rising wages in England shrank pool of penniless folk – By mid-1680s, black slaves outnumbered white servants among the plantation colonies new arrivals – 1698, Royal African Company lost monopoly on carrying slaves to colonies – Rhode Islanders rushed to cash in on lucrative slave trade – Blacks accounted for nearly half the population of Virginia by 1750 S.C. , outnumbered whites two to one – Death rates on ship as high as 20% – Few of earliest African immigrants gained freedom (some became slaveowners) – White colonist reacted remorselessly to racial threat – RACE – 1662, statues appeared that formally decreed the iron conditions of slavery for blacks – â€Å"Slave Codes† made blacks and their children the property (or â€Å"chattels†) for life of their white masters – Not e ven conversion to Christianity could qualify a slave for freedom – Slavery begun because of economic reasons Racial discrimination powerfully molded American slave system Africans in America – South, slave life especially severe – Climate hostile to health – Only fresh imports could sustain the slave population under conditions – Slave population rose – Few slave societies in history to perpetuate itself by natural reproduction (Chesapeake) – Native-born African-Americans contributed to growth of a stable and distinctive slave culture – Af. Ams. = Mixture of African and American elements of speech, religion and folkways – S.C. , unique language Gullah Blended with English and several African languages – Ringshout, West African religious dance performed by shuffling in a circle while answering a preacher’s shouts, was brought to colonial America, and contributed to development of jazz – Banjo and bong o drum also part of African contributions – Slave revolt erupted in NYC in 1712 that cost the lives of dozens of whites and caused execution of 21 blacks (burned at stake) – S. C. lacks along Stono River exploded in revolt in 1739 and tried to march to Spanish Florida (stopped by local militia) – No slave uprising in American history matched Bacon’s Rebellion Southern Society – As slavery spread, gaps in South’s social structure widened – Rough equality defined hierarchy of wealth and status in early 18th century – Owning gangs of slaves and vast domains of land, planters ruled region’s economy and monopolized political powerHouse of Burgesses Before Revolutionary War, 70% of leaders of Virginia legislature came from families established in VA before 1690 – the famed â€Å"first families of Virginia† or â€Å"FFVs† – Merchant planters Not gentlemanly Cultivated arts and accumulated distinguish ed libraries Businessmen (labored long hours) – One governor allowed servants to get drunk the next day if they would only lay off the liquor long enough to look after his guests at a celebration or the queen’s birthday in 1711 – Small farmers – Largest social group – Landless whites – Luckless former indentured servants – Indentured servants – Black slaves = basement of society Few cities sprouted in colonial South (professional class slow to emerge and revolved around great plantations) – Waterways provided principal means of transport – Roads hard to travel by The New England Family -New England settlers have good lives: 10 additional years of life expectancy, clean air and water, cool temperature. -New Englanders migrated as families. -Women wedded early (around 20) and had babies every 2 years until menopause. -Because women we’re dying from giving birth, many women began to fear pregnancy. -Children r eceived guidance from their parents and their grandparents.Strong family relationships. -Southern men frequently died young and left wives as widows. The southern colonies later allowed married women to retain separate title to their property. They were also given the right to inherit their husband’s estate. -New England lawmakers worried that recognizing women’s separate property rights would undercut the unity of married people. So, women gave up their property rights when married. -Women couldn’t vote, morally weaker than men. -New England authorities begin to restrain abusive spouses. -Divorce was rare and authorities encouraged couples to get back together.Life in the New England Towns -Puritans- concerned about whole community. -After proprietors received grants of land, they moved with their families and started a town. -Consisted of meeting house, houses, village green. -Each family received several parcels of land, a woodlot for fuel, and 2 tracts (for growing and pasturing) -A majority of adults knew how to read and write. -1636- Harvard is established/ -Regular town meetings. The Half-Way Covenant and the Salem Witch Trials -New form of sermon â€Å"jeremiad† -Individuals testify that they had received God’s grace and therefore deserved to be admitted to the church. 1662 Half-Way Covenant- the agreement between the church and its adherents to admit to baptism.Weakened the distinction between the â€Å"elect† and the others. -Puritans begin to accept anyone into their faith. -Teenage girls claimed to be bewitched by older women. This began the â€Å"witch hunt† -1692-lynching of 21 individuals and 2 dogs -Most accused witches came from families associated with Salem’s market economy -ended in 1693 when the governor (wife accused of witch-craft) prohibited any further trials and pardoned those convicted. The New England Way of Life -Weather was bad in New England. Soil and climate produced a dive rsified agriculture and industry. -Indians are well off.Recognized the right to use the land, but individual ownership was alien to them. -English brought pigs, horses, sheep, and cattle from Europe. -Colonists continually clearing forests. -New Englanders scattered. The Early Settlers’ Days and Ways -The majority of colonists were farmers. -Women on southern plantations and farms wove, cooked, cleaned, and cared for children. Men cleared land; fenced, planted and cropped; cut firewood; and butchered livestock. -Land was cheap. The Spanish were at Santa Fe in  1610. The French were at Quebec in  1608.The English were at Jamestown, Virginia in  1607. England's Imperial Stirrings King Henry VIII  broke with the Roman Catholic Church in the  1530s, launching the  English Protestant Reformation, and intensifying the rivalry with Catholic Spain. Elizabeth Energizes England In  1580,  Francis Drake  circumnavigated the globe, plundering and returning with his ship loaded with Spanish booty. He had a profit of about 4,600%. When the English fleet defeated the Spanish Armada, Spain's empirical dreams and fighting spirit had been weakened – helping to ensure the English's naval dominance over the North Atlantic.England on the Eve of an Empire Because an economic  depression  hit  England  in the later part of the 1500s and many people were left without homes, the stage was set for the establishment of an English beachhead in North America. England Plants the Jamestown Seedling In  1606, a joint-stock company, known as the  Virginia Company of London,  received a charter from  King James I of England  for a settlement in the New World. The company landed in Jamestown on  May 24, 1607. In  1608,  Captain John Smith  took over the town and forced the settlers into line.By  1609, of the 400 settlers who came to Virginia, only 60 survived the â€Å"starving winter† of 1609-1610. Cultural Clash in the Chesape ake Lord De La Warr  reached Jamestown in  1610  with supplies and military. He started the  First Anglo-Powhatan War. The Indians were again defeated in the  Second Anglo-Powhatan War  in  1644. By  1685, the English considered the Powhatan people to be extinct. Virginia: Child of Tobacco John Rolfe  married  Pocahontas  in  1614,  ending  the First Anglo-Powhatan War. In  1619, self-government was made in Virginia. The London Company authorized the settlers to summon an assembly, known as the  House of Burgesses.King James I didn't trust the House of Burgesses and so in  1624, he made Virginia a colony of England, directly under his control. Maryland: Catholic Haven Maryland  was formed in  1634  by  Lord Baltimore. Maryland was made for a refuge for the Catholics to escape the wrath of the Protestant English government. The  Act of Toleration, which was passed in  1649  by the local representative group in Maryland, granted tolerati on to all Christians. The West Indies: Way Station to mainland America By the mid-17th Century, England had secured its claim to several West Indian Islands. Sugar  was, by far, the major crop on the Indian Islands.To support the massive sugar crops, millions of African slaves were imported. By 1700, the number of black slaves to white settlers in the English West Indies by nearly 4 to 1. In order to control the large number of slaves, theBarbados Slave Code of 1661  denied  even the most fundamental rights to slaves. Colonizing the Carolinas Civil war plagued England in the 1640s. In  1707, the Savannah Indians decided to end their alliance with the Carolinians and migrate to the back country of Maryland and Pennsylvania, where a new colony founded by Quakers under  William Penn  promised better relations.Almost all of the Indians were killed in raids before they could depart – in  1710. Rice  became the primary export of the Carolinas. The Thirteen Original Colonies Name| Founded By| Year| Virginia| London Co. | 1607| New Hampshire| John Mason and Others| 1623| MassachusettsPlymouthMaine| PuritansSeparatistsF. Gorges| 162816201623| Maryland| Lord Baltimore| 1634| ConnecticutNew Haven| Mass. EmigrantsMass. Emigrants| 16351638| Rhode Island| R. Williams| 1636| Delaware| Swedes| 1638| N. Carolina| Virginians| 1653| New York| Duke of York| 1664| New Jersey| Berkeley and Carteret| 1664|Carolina| Eight Nobles| 1670| Pennsylvania| William Penn| 1681| Georgia| Oglethorpe and others| 1733| * France Finds a Foothold in Canada In  1598, the  Edict of Nantes  was issued by the crown of France. It granted limited religious freedom to French Protestants, and stopped religious wars between the Protestants and Catholics. In  1608, France established  Quebec. (Catholic)   The leading figure was  Samuel de Champlain,  an intrepid soldier and explorer whose energy and leadership earned him the title â€Å"Father of New France†. The government of New France (Canada) was under direct control of the king.The people did not elect any representative assemblies. New France Sets Out New France contained one valuable resource –  beaver. French Catholic missionaries, notably the  Jesuits, labored with much enthusiasm to convert the Indians to Christianity and to save them from the fur trappers. Antoine Cadillac- founded Detroit in  1701  to thwart English settlers pushing into the Ohio Valley. Robert de La Salle- explored the Mississippi and Gulf basin, naming it Louisiana. In order to block the Spanish on the Gulf of Mexico, the French planted several fortified posts in Mississippi and Louisiana.The French founded  New Orleans  in  1718. Illinois became France's garden empire of North America because much grain was produced there. The Clash of Empires The earliest battles among European power for control of North America, known to British colonists as  King William's War (1689-1697)  and  Q ueen Anne's War (1702-1713). Most of the battles were between the British colonists, the French, and the French ally Spain. The wars ended in  1713  with peace terms signed at  Utrecht. France and Spain were terribly beaten and Britain received French-populated Acadia and Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay.The British also won limited trading rights in Spanish America. The War of Jenkins's Ear started in  1739  between the British and Spaniards. This small battle became a war and became known as  King Georges's War in America. It ended in  1748  with a treaty that handed Louisbourg back to France, enraging the victorious New Englanders. George Washington Inaugurates War with France In  1754, George Washington was sent to Ohio Country to secure the land of the Virginians who had secured legal rights to 500,000 acres. His 150 Virginia militia killed the French leader, causing French reinforcements to come.The Virginians were forced to surrender on  July 4, 1754. In  1755, the British uprooted the French Acadians fearing a stab in the back, and scattered them as far as Louisiana. Global War and Colonial Disunity The  French and Indian War (Seven Years' War)  started in  1754. It was fought in America, Europe, the West Indies, the Philippines, Africa, and on the ocean. In Europe, the principal adversaries were Britain and Prussia on one side and France, Spain, Austria, and Russia on the other. The French wasted so many troops in Europe that they were unable to put enough forces into America.The  Albany Congress  met in  1754. Only 7 of 13 colony delegates showed up. It attempted to unite all of the colonies but the plan was hated by individual colonists and the London regime. Braddock's Blundering and Its Aftermath General Braddock  set out in  1755  with 2,000 men to capture  Fort Duquesne. His force was slaughtered by the much smaller French and Indian army. (Braddock's Blunder)   Due to this loss of troops, the whole fro ntier from Pennsylvania to North Carolina was left open to attack. George Washington, with only 300 men, tried to defend the area.In  1756, the British launched a  full-scale invasion of Canada. Pitt's Palms of Victory In  1757,  William Pitt  became the foremost leader in the London government. He was known as the â€Å"Great Commoner. †Ã‚   He attacked and captured  Louisbourg  in  1758. To lead the attack in the  Battle of Quebec  in  1759, Pitt chose  James Wolfe. The two opposing armies faced each other on the  Plains of Abraham, the British under Wolfe and the French under  Marquis de Montcalm. Montreal fell in  1760. The  Treaty of Paris (1763)  ended the battle and threw the French power off the continent of North America.Restless Colonists Intercolonial disunity  had been caused by enormous distances; geographical barriers; conflicting religions, from Catholics to Quakers; varied nationalities, from German to Irish; differing types of colonial governments; many boundary disputes; and the resentment of the crude back-country settlers against the aristocrats. Americans: A People of Destiny In  1763,  Ottawa chief,  Pontiac,  led several tribes, aided by a handful of French traders who remained in the region, in a violent campaign to drive the British out of the Ohio country.His warriors captured Detroit in the spring of that year and overran all but 3 British outposts west of the Appalachians. The British countered these attacks and eventually defeated the Indians. London government issued the  Proclamation of 1763. It prohibited settlement in the area beyond the Appalachians. (The Appalachian land was acquired after the British beat the Indians). It was made to prevent another bloody eruption between the settlers and Indians. Many colonists disregarded it. * The Deep Roots of Revolution Two ideas in particular had taken root in the minds of the American colonists by the mid 18th  century:   1.Rep ublicanism- a just society in which all citizens willingly subordinated their private, selfish interests to the common good. Both the stability of society and the authority of government thus depended on the virtue of the citizenry-its capacity for selflessness, self-sufficiency, and courage. 2. â€Å"Radical Whigs†, a group of British political commentators, made attacks on the use of patronage and bribes by the king's ministers. They warned citizens to be on guard for possible corruption. Mercantilism and Colonial Grievances Georgia was the only colony to be formed by Britain.The  Navigation Law of 1650  stated that all goods flowing to and from the colonies could only be transported in British vessels. It was aimed to hurt rival Dutch shippers. The Stamp Tax Uproar Due to the French and Indian War, Britain had a very large debt. In  1763,  Prime Minister George Grenville  ordered the British navy to begin strictly enforcing the  Navigation Laws. He also secured from Parliament the  Sugar Act of 1764, the first law ever passed by Parliament to raise tax revenue in the colonies for England. The Sugar Act increased the duty on foreign sugar imported from the West Indies.The  Quartering Act of 1765  required certain colonies to provide food and quarters for British troops. In  1765, George Grenville imposed a stamp tax on the colonies to raise revenues to support the new military force. This stamp tax, known as the  Stamp Act, mandated the use of stamped paper or the affixing of stamps, certifying payment of tax. Parliament Forced to Repeal the Stamp Act The  Stamp Act Congress of 1765  brought together in New York City 27 distinguished delegates from 9 colonies. The members drew up a statement of their rights and grievances and requested the king and Parliament to repeal the hated legislation.The meeting's ripples began to erode sectional suspicions (suspicions between the colonies), for it had brought together around the same table leaders from the different and rival colonies. It was one step towardsintercolonial unity. Nonimportation agreements  (agreements made to not import British goods)  were a stride toward unionism. The  Sons of Liberty  and  Daughters of Liberty  took the law into their own hands by enforcing the nonimportation agreements. The Stamp Act was repealed by Parliament in  1766. Parliament passed the  Declaratory Act, reaffirming its right to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever.The Townshend Tea Tax and the Boston Massacre In  1767, Parliament passed the  Townshend Acts. They put a light import tax on glass, white lead, paper, paint, and tea. British officials, faced with a breakdown of law and order, landed 2 regiments of troops in the colonies in  1768. On  March 5, 1770, a crowd of 60 townspeople attacked 10 redcoats and the redcoats opened fired on the civilians, killing/wounding 11 of them. The massacre was known as the  Boston Massacre. The Sediti ous Committees of Correspondence Lord North was forced to persuade Parliament to repeal the Townshend revenue duties.Samuel Adams- master propagandist and engineer of rebellion; formed the first local committee of correspondence in Massachusetts in  1772  (Sons of Liberty). Committees of Correspondance were created by the American colonies in order to maintain communication with one another. They were organized in the decade before the Revolution when communication between the colonies became essential. In March of  1773, the Virginia  House of Burgesses, the lower house of the Colony of Virginia, proposed that each colonial legislature appoint a standing committee for intercolonial correspondance.Within just a year, nearly all of the colonies had joined. Tea Parties at Boston and Elsewhere In  1773,  the  British East India Company  was overstocked with 17 million pounds of unsold tea. If the company collapsed, the London government would lose much money. Therefore, the London government gave the company a full monopoly of the tea sell in America. Fearing that it was trick to pay more taxes on tea, the Americans rejected the tea. When the ships arrived in the Boston harbor, the governor of Massachusetts,  Thomas Hutchinson, forced the citizens to allow the ships to unload their tea.On  December 16, 1773, a band of Bostonians, disguised as Indians, boarded the ships and dumped the tea into the sea. (Boston Tea Party) Parliament Passes the â€Å"Intolerable Acts† In  1774, Parliament punished the people of Massachusetts for their actions in the Boston Tea Party. Parliament passed laws, known as the  Intolerable Acts, which restricted colonists' rights. The laws made restrictions on town meetings, and stated that enforcing officials who killed colonists in the line of duty would be sent to Britain for trial (where it was assumed they would be acquitted of their charges). One such law was the  Boston Port Act.It closed the Boston harbor until damages were paid and order could be ensured. The  Quebec Act  was also passed in  1774, but was not apart of the Intolerable Acts. It gave Catholic French Canadians religious freedom and restored the French form of civil law; this law nullified many of the Western claims of the coast colonies by extending the boundaries of the province of Quebec to the Ohio River on the south and to the Mississippi River on the west. The Continental Congress and Bloodshed In  1774, the  1st Continental Congress  met in Philadelphia in order to redress colonial grievances over the Intolerable Acts.The 13 colonies, excluding Georgia, sent 55 men to the convention. (The 1st Continental Congress was not a legislative body, rather a consultative body, and convention rather than a congress. ) After 7 weeks of deliberation, the  1st Continental Congress  drew up several papers. The papers included a  Declaration of Rights  and solemn appeals to other British-American colon ies, to the king, and to the British people. The creation of  The Association  was the most important outcome of the Congress. It called for a complete  boycott  of British goods; nonimportation, nonexportation, and nonconsumption.In  April 1775, the British commander in Boston sent a detachment of troops to  Lexington. They were to seize provisions of colonial gunpowder and to capture the â€Å"rebel† ringleaders,  Samuel Adams  and  John Hancock. At Lexington, 8 Americans were shot and killed. This incident was labeled as the â€Å"Lexington Massacre. †Ã‚   When the British went on to Concord, they were met with American resistance and there were over 300 casualties and 70 deaths. Because of this, the British had a  war, rather than a rebellion on their hands. Imperial Strength and WeaknessesThe population of Britain was over 3 times as large as the population of America. Britain also had a much greater economic wealth and naval power. Unfortunate ly for the British, though, there was rebellion brewing in Ireland, and France, bitter from its recent defeat, was waiting for an opportunity to attack Britain. Britain was therefore forced to divert much of its military power and concentration away from the Americas. Britain's army in America had to operate under numerous difficulties; provisions were short and soldiers were treated brutally.American Pluses and Minuses Marquis de Lafayette- French who was made a major general in the colonial army at the age of 19; the â€Å"French Gamecock†; his services were invaluable in securing further aid from France. The  Articles of Confederation  was adopted in  1781. It was the first written constitution adopted by colonists. Due to the lack of metallic money in America, Continental Congress was forced to print â€Å"Continental† paper money. Within a short time, this money depreciated significantly and individual states were forced to print their own paper money.A Thin Line of Heroes At  Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, American men went without food for 3 days in the  winter  of  1777-1778. Baron von Steuben- German who helped to whip the America fighters into shape for fighting the British. Lord Dunmore- royal (British) governor of Virginia. In  1775, he issued a proclamation  promising freedom  for any enslaved black in Virginia who joined the British army. â€Å"Lord Dunmore's Ethiopian Regiment† Congress Drafts George Washington The Second Continental Congress selected  George Washington  to head the army besieging Boston.Bunker Hill and Hessian Hirelings From April 1775 to July 1776, the colonists were both affirming their loyalty to the king by sincerely voicing their desire to patch up difficulties while at the same time raising armies and killing redcoats. In May 1775, a tiny American force under  Ethan Allen  and  Benedict Arnold  captured the British garrisons at  Ticonderoga and Crown Point. There, a stor e of gunpowder and artillery was secured. In June 1775, the colonists captured  Bunker Hill. The British took it back with a large number of soldiers.In  July 1775, the Second Continental Congress adopted the â€Å"Olive Branch Petition†, which professed American loyalty to the king and begged to the king to stop further hostilities. The petition was rejected by the king. With the rejection, the Americans were forced to choose to fight to become independent or to submit to British rule and power. In August 1775, King George III proclaimed that the colonies were in rebellion. He then hired German  Hessians  to bring order to the colonies. The Abortive Conquest of Canada In October 1775, the  British burned Falmouth  (Portland), Maine.In the same month, colonists made an attack on Canada in hopes that it would close it off as a possible source for a British striking point. The attack failed whenGeneral Richard Montgomery  was killed. In January 1776, the  Britis h set fire to Norfolk. Thomas Paine Preaches Common Sense The Americans continued to  deny any intention of independence  because loyalty to the empire was deeply ingrained; many Americans continued to consider themselves apart of a transatlantic community in which the mother country of Britain played a leading role; colonial unity was poor; and open rebellion was dangerous.Thomas Paine  released a pamphlet called  Common Sense  in  1776. It argued that the colonies had outgrown any need for English domination and that they should be given independence. Paine and the Idea of â€Å"Republicanism† Thomas Paine called for the creation of a new kind of political society, specifically a  republic, where power flowed from the people themselves. Jefferson's Explanation of Independence On July 2, 1776,  Richard Henry Lee  of Virginia's  resolution of declaring independence was passed. It was the formal declaration of independence by the American colonies.Thomas Je fferson  was appointed to draft up the  Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of Independence  was formally  approved  by Congress on  July 4, 1776. It was an explanation of everything the king had done to the Americans. Patriots and Loyalists During the War of Independence, the Loyalists were called â€Å"Tories† and the Patriots were called â€Å"Whigs. †Ã‚   Tory: â€Å"a thing whose head is in England, and its body in America, and its neck ought to be stretched. † The Loyalists made up 16% of the American population. Many people of education and wealth remained loyal  Ã‚  to England.Loyalists were most numerous where the  Anglican church  was strongest. The  Loyalists  were well entrenched in  New York City, Charleston, Quaker Pennsylvania,  and  New Jersey. They were least numerous in New England. The  Patriots  were numerous where  Presbyterianism and Congregationalism  flourished-mostly in New England. The Loyali st Exodus Before the Declaration of Independence, the Loyalists were treated relatively mild. After, though, they were hanged, imprisoned, and roughly handled. They Loyalists were forced to leave because the Patriots had to eliminate their weaknesses.General Washington at Bay The  British  concentrated  New York City  as a base of operation due to the fact that Boston was evacuated in March 1776. In  1776, General Washington and his men were overpowered by the British at the  Battle of Long Island. Washington and his men escaped to Manhattan Island. General William Howe  was General Washington's adversary. On  December 26, 1776, Washington surprised and captured  1,000 Hessians  who were sleeping. Burgoyne's Blundering Invasion London officials had an intricate scheme for capturing the vital  Hudson River valley in 1777.It would sever New England from the rest of the states and paralyze the American cause. The main invading force, lead by  General Burgoyne, w ould push down the Lake Champlain route from Canada. General Howe's  troops in New York, if needed, could advance up the Hudson River to meet Burgoyne near Albany. The 3rd  force was commanded by colonelBarry St. Leger, who would come in from the west by way of Lake Ontario and the Mohawk Valley. General Burgoyne was forced to surrender his entire command at  Saratoga  on  October 17, 1777  to American general  Horatio Gates  (Burgoyne's Blunder).This win made it possible for the urgently needed  foreign aid from France. (Turning point in war. ) Strange French Bedfellows After the shooting at  Lexington  in April 1775, French secretly provided arms to the Americans. The British offered the Americans  home rule  after the Battle of Saratoga. The French didn't want Britain to regain its colonies for fear that Britain would seize the  sugar rich French West Indies. In order to stop this, the  French made an open alliance  with the Americans in  1778, o ffering all the British did with the exception of independence.The Colonial War Becomes a World War Spain and Holland became allies against Britain in  1779. The British decided to evacuate Philadelphia and concentrate their strength in New York City. Blow and Counterblow General Benedict Arnold  turned traitor against the Americans in 1780. General Nathaniel Greene  succeeded in clearing most British troops out of Georgia and South Carolina. The Land Frontier and the Sea Frontier The  Treaty of Fort Stanwix- (1784) the first treaty between the United States and an Indian nation; signed with the Iroquois.George Rogers Clark- conceived the idea of capturing the British of the wild Illinois country in 1778-1779. John Paul Jones  is known as the father of the navy. He employed the tactic of privateering. Privateering- when privately owned and crewed vessels were authorized by a government during a wartime to attack and capture enemy vessels, men, cargo, etc; it diverted manpo wer from the main war effort; it brought in needed gold, harassed the enemy, and raised American morale by providing victories in a time when victories were few. Yorktown and the Final CurtainFrom 1780-1781, the U. S. government fell nearly bankrupt. British General Cornwallis  fell back to Chesapeake Bay at  Yorktown  to await seaborne supplies and reinforcements. This time in war was one of the few times when British naval superiority had been lacking. Admiral de Grasseoffered to join the Americans in an assault of Cornwallis via the sea. George Washington, along with  Rochambeau's army, and Admiral de Grasse cornered Cornwallis. He was forced to  surrender on October 19, 1781. Peace at Paris In 1782, a Whig ministry replaced the Tory regime of Lord North.Conditions of the Treaty of Paris of 1783: British formally recognized the independence of the United States. Florida is given to Spain. Britain granted generous boundaries, stretching to the Mississippi on the west, to the Great Lakes on the north, and to Spanish Florida on the south. Yankees were to retain a share in the priceless fisheries of Newfoundland. The Loyalists were to no longer be prosecuted. Congress was to recommend to the state legislatures that confiscated Loyalist property be restored. The states vowed to put no lawful obstacles in the way of Loyalist property collection.Ben Franklin,  John Adams, and  John Jay  negotiated the peace terms with Britain. The Pursuit of Equality The Continental Army officers formed an exclusive hereditary order called the  Society of the Cincinnati. Virginia Statue for Religious Freedom-  created in  1786  by Thomas Jefferson and his co-reformers; stated that religion should not be imposed on anybody and that each person decided his/her own faith. The Philadelphia  Quakers  in  1775  founded the first  anti-slavery society. The 1st Continental Congress called for the complete  abolition of the slave trade  in  1774.Seve ral northern states went further and either abolished slavery altogether or provided the gradual emancipation of slaves. No states south of Pennsylvania abolished slavery. Constitution Making in the States The 2nd Continental Congress called upon the colonies in  1776  to draft  new constitutions. Massachusetts called a special convention to draft its constitution and then submitted the final draft to the people. As  written  documents, the state constitutions were intended to represent a  fundamental law, superior to the short-lived impulses of ordinary legislation.In the Revolutionary era, the capitals of New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia were all moved westward. Economic Crosscurrents Economic democracy preceded political democracy. Due to the independence from Britain, the United States had to make everything on its own which it no longer imported from Britain. Many Americans were poor because the economy was so bad. Creat ing a Confederation Shortly before declaring independence in 1776, the 2nd  Continental Congress appointed a committee to draft a written constitution for the new nation.The finished product was the  Articles of Confederation. It was  adopted  by Congress in  1777  and it convinced France that America had a genuine government in the making. The Articles of Confederation wasn't  ratified by all 13 colonies until 1781. The Articles of Confederation: America's First Constitution The 13 colonies were joined together for joint action in dealing with common problems such as foreign affairs. Congress had 2 major handicaps: It had no power to regulate commerce, and this loophole left the states free to establish conflictingly laws regarding tariffs and navigation.Congress couldn't enforce its tax collection program. The states were NOT required to pay the government taxes, they were merely asked. Landmarks in Land Laws Land Ordinance of 1785- stated that the acreage of the Old Northwest should be sold and the proceeds should be used to help pay off the national debt. Northwest Ordinance of 1787- a uniform national land policy; created the Northwest Territories and gave the land to the government, the land could then be purchased by individuals; when a territory had 60,000 people, it might be admitted by Congress as a state, with all the privileges of the 13 other states.The World's Ugly Duckling Britain declined to make any commercial treaty with the colonies or to repeal its Navigation Laws. Lord Sheffield  argued in his pamphlet that Britain could win back America's trade. The  British remained in the Americas  where they maintained their fur trade with the Indians. The American states did not honor the treaty of peace in regard to debts and Loyalists. The British stayed primarily to keep the Indians on the side of the British so to defend against future attacks on Canada by the Americans. Spain was openly unfriendly to the Americans.It closed of f the Mississippi river to commerce in  1784. The Horrid Specter of Anarchy Shay's Rebellion- in western Massachusetts in  1786; when impoverished back-country farmers, who were losing their farms through mortgage foreclosures and tax delinquencies, attempted to enforce their demands of cheap paper money, lighter taxes, and a suspension of property takeovers; led by  Captain Daniel Shays. The uprising was crushed but it left fear in the propertied class of mobs. A Convention of â€Å"Demigods† In  1786, Virginia called for a  convention at Annapolis, Maryland.There,  Alexander Hamilton  saved the convention from collapsing – delegates from only 5 states showed up. He called upon Congress to summon a convention to meet in Philadelphia the next year, not to deal with just commerce, but to  fix then entire fabric of the Articles of Confederation. Alexander Hamilton  was an advocate of a super-powerful central government. On  May 25, 1787, 55 representa tives from all of the states except for Rhode Island were sent to Philadelphia to talk of the government in the future of the country. (Constitutional Convention)   George Washington was elected as the leader. Patriots in PhiladelphiaThe delegates hoped to save the revolutionary idealism and make it into a strong political structure. Hammering Out a Bundle of Compromises Some of the delegates decided they would  scrap  the old Articles of Confederation, contradicting instructions from Congress to revise it. The â€Å"large-state plan† was proposed by Virginia and was first pushed forward as the framework of the Constitution. It said that the arrangement in Congress should be based upon a state's population. New Jersey presented the â€Å"small-state plan. †Ã‚   It centered on equal representation in Congress without regards to a state's size or population.The â€Å"Great Compromise† of the convention was hammered out and finally agreed upon. It called for representation by population in the  House of Representatives, and equal representation in the  Senate. Each state would have 2 senators. The new  Constitution  also called for a President. Because of arguments over if the slaves would count towards the general population of the state, the â€Å"three-fifths compromise† was created. The new Constitution also called for the  end of the slave trade by the end of 1807. All new state constitutions except Georgia's forbade overseas slave trade.Rhode Island was not present at the Constitutional Convention. Safeguards for Conservatism The members of the Constitutional Convention agreed economically-demanded sound money and the protection of private property; and politically-favored a stronger government with 3 branches and with checks and balances among them. The Clash of Federalists and Anti-federalists The Anti-federalists were led by  Samuel Adams,  Patrick Henry, and  Richard Henry Lee. The followers consisted of states' rights devotees, back country dwellers, and one-horse farmers – in general, the poorest class.Federalists were led by  George Washington  and  Benjamin Franklin. Most of the Federalists lived in the settled areas along the seaboard. Overall, they were wealthier than the Anti-federalists, more educated, and better organized. They also controlled the press. The Great Debate in the States Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, South Carolina, and New Hampshire were the first 9 states to sign the Constitution. Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island were the only states to not sign it. (4 Laggard States)The Four Laggard States Virginia, New York, and North Carolina all ratified the Constitution before it was put into effect. Rhode Island was the last state to ratify it and it did so only after the new government had been in operation for a few months. These 4 states did not ratify the Constitution because the y wanted to but because they had to. They could not safely exist outside the fold. A Conservative Triumph The architects of the Constitution contented that every branch-executive, judiciary, and legislative-effectively represented the people.By imbedding the principle of self-rule in a self-limiting system of checks and balances among these 3 branches, the Constitution settled the conflicting doctrines of liberty and order. * Washington for President George Washington was unanimously elected as President by the Electoral College in  1789. He took the oath of office on April 30, 1789. He established the cabinet. At first,  Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson,  Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, and  Secretary of War Henry Knox  served under Washington. Bill of Rights James Madison  wrote the  Bill of Rights  and got them passed by Congress in  1791.The  Judiciary Act of 1789  created the Supreme Court, with a chief justice and five associates, as well as federal district and circuit courts, and established the office of attorney general. John Jay  became the first Chief Justice. Hamilton Revives the Corpse of Public Credit In order to create a thriving federal government,  Alexander Hamilton  set out to create a plan to shape the policies of the administration in such a way as to favor the wealthier groups. These wealthier groups would then gratefully lend their money and political support to the government. The wealth in the government would then trickle down through society.In this plan, Hamilton persuaded Congress to fund the entire national debt at par, meaning that the federal government would pay off its debts at face value plus accumulated interest. This would strengthen the national credit by creating public confidence in the small Treasury department. He then convinced Congress to take on the states' debts, which would create confidence in the government by the states. States with large debts, like Massachusetts, were delighted with Hamilton's proposal, but states with small debts, like Virginia, did not want the government to assume state ebts. Virginia did, however, want the forthcoming federal district, the District of Columbia, which would bring commerce and prestige. So Virginia made a deal with the government:   the government would assume state debts if the District of Columbia was placed on the Potomac River. The deal was passed by Congress in  1790. Customs, Duties, and Excise Taxes One of Hamilton's objectives was to keep a  national debt, believing that the more creditors to whom the government owed money, the more people there would be with a personal stake in the success of the government.In this objective, he expected  tariff revenues  to pay interest on the huge debt and run the government. The first tariff law, which imposed a low tax of 8% on the value of imports, was passed by Congress in  1789. Its purpose was to create revenue and to create a small protective wall around small industries. He passed additional internal revenue and, in  1791, convinced Congress to pass an  excise tax  on a few domestic items, notably whiskey. Hamilton Battles Jefferson for a Bank Alexander Hamilton proposed a  Bank of the United States  that could print paper money and thus provide a stable national currency.The national bank would also be place where the Treasury could deposit monies. Thomas Jefferson strongly opposed the Bank stating it was unconstitutional. He felt that the states had the right to manage their own money. Most of the opposition came from the south and most of the support came from the north. Hamilton prevailed and the 1st  Bank of the United States was created in  1791. Its charter lasted for 20 years and was located in Philadelphia. Mutinous Moonshiners in Pennsylvania The  Whiskey Rebellion  in Pennsylvania in  1794  was lead by distillers who strongly opposed the 1791 excise tax on whiskey.The rebellion was ended when President Washington sent in federal troops. Although the troops faced no opposition, a strong message was sent by the government stating that it would enforce the law. The Emergence of Political Parties Political parties had not existed in America when George Washington took office. What was once a personal feud between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton had developed into a full-blown and bitter political rivalry. In the 1790s, Jefferson and Madison organized their opposition to the Hamiltonian program but confined it to Congress.In due time, this organized opposition grew and the  two-party system  emerged. The Impact of the French Rebellion When Washington's first administration had ended in 1793, a formation of two political groups had ensued:   Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans  and  Hamilton Federalists. The  French Revolution  started in  1789. It began peacefully but entered a violent phase when France declared war on Austria in 1792. Things sta rted to get worse when King Louis XVI was beheaded in 1793, the church was attacked, and the head-rolling Reign of Terror was begun.At first, the Federalists supported the revolution  but that view suddenly changed when the attitude of the revolution changed. Washington's Neutrality Proclamation Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans wanted to get into the  French and British War  to fight  for  France. The Federalists were  opposed. Washington issued the  Neutrality Proclamation of 1793  stating the country's neutrality from the Britain-France war. He was backed by Hamilton. Embroilments with Britain For years, the British had retained the frontier posts on U. S. soil, all in defiance of the peace treaty of 1783.The London government did not want to abandon the valuable fur trade in the Great Lakes region, and British agents openly sold firearms to the  Miami Confederacy, an alliance of 8 Indian nations who terrorized Americans. The Jeffersonians felt that American s hould again fight Britain in defense of America's liberties. The Federalists opposed this action because Hamilton's hopes for economic development depended on trade with Britain. Jay's Treaty and Washington's Farewell In a last attempt to avoid war, President Washington sent Chief Justice  John Jay  to London in  1794  to negotiate.Opposed by Democratic-Republicans, Jay hammered out a treaty,  Jay's Treaty, in which the British promised to evacuate the chain of posts on U. S. soil and pay for damages for the seizures of American ships. Britain stopped short of pledging anything about future maritime seizures or about supplying arms to Indians. The treaty also called for the U. S. to continue to pay the debts owed to British merchants on pre-Revolutionary War accounts. Jay's Treaty caused Spain, which feared an Anglo-American alliance, to strike a deal with the U. S.In  Pinckney's Treaty of 1795  with Spain, Spain granted the Americans free navigation of the Mississippi River and the large disputed territory north of Florida. In his Farewell Address to the nation, Washington urged against permanent alliances. He left office in  1797. John Adams Becomes President John Adams  beat Thomas Jefferson to become to the  2nd  President in 1797. Hamilton became the leader of the  Federalist Party, known as the â€Å"High Federalists. † Unofficial Fighting with France France was upset with Jay's Treaty and it started capturing American